Non-Jew in Jewish Law - Revision history

פטר חמור at 09:05, 6 April 2021

2021-04-06T09:05:14Z

פטר חמור at 11:08, 15 April 2013

2013-04-15T11:08:41Z

WikSysop at 19:12, 23 April 2007

2007-04-23T19:12:12Z

WikSysop: Gentile moved to Non-Jew in Jewish Law: expresses wider scope of wikipage

2007-03-28T09:32:39Z

Gentile moved to Non-Jew in Jewish Law: expresses wider scope of wikipage

WikSysop: /* From the Post-Talmudic Period to the Present Time */

2007-03-28T09:27:54Z

‎From the Post-Talmudic Period to the Present Time

WikSysop: /* Views of the Amoraim. */

2007-03-28T09:27:01Z

‎Views of the Amoraim.

WikSysop: /* Tannaitic Views of non-Jews. */

2007-03-28T09:24:49Z

‎Tannaitic Views of non-Jews.

WikSysop: /* Gamaliel II. */

2007-03-28T09:21:28Z

‎Gamaliel II.

WikSysop at 09:15, 28 March 2007

2007-03-28T09:15:35Z

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WikSysop at 09:05, 28 March 2007

2007-03-28T09:05:41Z

Show changes

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 Restrictions in the matter of the reception of strangers <ref>see Proselyte and Proselytism</ref> were made in the case of
-# Edomites and Egyptians, who were entitled to acceptance only in the fourth generation, i.e., the third from the original immigrant; and
+# [[Edomites]] and Egyptians, who were entitled to acceptance only in the fourth generation, i.e., the third from the original immigrant; and
 # Ammonites and Moabites. These latter two were put on a level with persons of illegitimate birth, and were therefore excluded from ''the congregation of the Lord forever'' <ref>Deut. xxiii. et seq.; compare the American anti-Chinese legislation</ref>.

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 ==Judaism Not Hostile to non-Jews.==
-In pre-exilic times the intercourse between Israelites and non-Israelites (non-Canaanites) was not very active or extensive, and non-Israelites (Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians) always appeared as enemies. But the Exile brought Israel into closer contact with non-Israel. If the conclusions of the critical schools are accepted, according to which the opening chapters of Genesis date from this period, the fact that Israel posits at the beginning of history the unity of all humanity should give pause to the ascription to Judaism of hostility toward the non-Jew majority of humanity. The books of Ruth and Jonah are also documentary proof that the Hebrew racialism of Ezra met with strenuous opposition. Greeks, Syrians, and Romans, the peoples with whom post-exilic Israel had incisive relations, were not animated by a spirit apt to engender in the Jew a responsive sentiment of regard. Nor were their morals (''Chukhot ha-goyyim'') such as to allay the apprehension of faithful Jews as to the probable results of contact. The Maccabean revolution, the struggle against Hellenism, the rise against Rome under both Titus and Hadrian, are the historical background to the opinions expressed concerning non-Jews and the enactments adopted against them. Yet withal, both relatively —by comparison with the attitude of the Greek world toward the non-Greek (barbarian), or with the Roman treatment of the non-Romans (the ''pagani'') —and absolutely, the sentiments of the Jew toward the non-Jew were superior to the general moral and mental atmosphere. The Essenes certainly represent the cosmopolitan and broadly humanitarian tendencies of Judaism; and as for the Pharisees, their contempt for the non-Jew was not deeper than their contempt for the Jewish 'Am ha-Arez. (the unlearned, suspected always of laxity in religious duty). The golden rule is Pharisaic doctrine <ref>comp. Ab. R. N., Recension B, xxvi., xxix., xxx., xxxiii.</ref>.
+In pre-exilic times the intercourse between Israelites and non-Israelites (non-Canaanites) was not very active or extensive, and non-Israelites (Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians) always appeared as enemies. But the Exile brought Israel into closer contact with non-Israel. If the conclusions of the critical schools are accepted, according to which the opening chapters of Genesis date from this period, the fact that Israel posits at the beginning of history the unity of all humanity should give pause to the ascription to Judaism of hostility toward the non-Jew majority of humanity. The books of Ruth and Jonah are also documentary proof that the Hebrew racialism of Ezra met with strenuous opposition. Greeks, Syrians, and Romans, the peoples with whom post-exilic Israel had incisive relations, were not animated by a spirit apt to engender in the Jew a responsive sentiment of regard. Nor were their morals (''Chukhot ha-goyyim'') such as to allay the apprehension of faithful Jews as to the probable results of contact. The Maccabean revolution, the struggle against Hellenism, the rise against Rome under both Titus and Hadrian, are the historical background to the opinions expressed concerning non-Jews and the enactments adopted against them. Yet withal, both relatively —by comparison with the attitude of the Greek world toward the non-Greek (barbarian), or with the Roman treatment of the non-Romans (the ''pagani'') —and absolutely, the sentiments of the Jew toward the non-Jew were superior to the general moral and mental atmosphere. The [[Essenes]] certainly represent the cosmopolitan and broadly humanitarian tendencies of Judaism; and as for the Pharisees, their contempt for the non-Jew was not deeper than their contempt for the Jewish 'Am ha-Arez. (the unlearned, suspected always of laxity in religious duty). The golden rule is Pharisaic doctrine <ref>comp. Ab. R. N., Recension B, xxvi., xxix., xxx., xxxiii.</ref>.
 In judging the halakic enactments one must keep in mind not merely the situation of the Jews—engaged in a bitter struggle for self-preservation and exposed to all sorts of treachery and suffering from persecution—but also the distinction between law and equity. The law can not and does not recognize the right of demented persons, minors, or aliens to hold property. Even modern statutes are based on this principle; e.g., in the state of Illinois, U. S. A., an alien can not inherit real estate. But what the law denies, equity confers. The Talmudic phrase ''mi-pene darke shalom'' (''on account of the ways of peace''; see below) is the equivalent of the modern ''in equity.''

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	==References==		==References==
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		+	[[Category:Legal Rulings]]

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 The opinions of a few of the noted and authoritative scholars are here cited to show the favorable change which the attitude of the Jews toward the non-Jews underwent in post-Talmudic times.
 R. Sherira Gaon, president of the college in Pumbedita in the tenth century, permitted Jews to bring suit in a non-Jew court on the defendant's refusal to have the case adjudicated by a Jewish tribunal. "Even if the Jew be the robber and the non-Jew the one robbed, it is the duty of those who know it to so testify before the justice" <ref>quoted in ''Be'er ha-Golah'' to Shulchan 'Aruk, Choshen Mishpat.; see also ib. 426, 5</ref>.
 Maimonides (twelfth century), in his code written in Egypt, says: "It is forbidden to defraud or deceive any person in business. Jew and non-Jew are to be treated alike. If the vendor knows that his merchandise is defective, he must so inform the purchaser. It is wrong to deceive any person in words, even without causing him a pecuniary loss <ref>''Yad,'' Mekirah, xviii. 1</ref>. In his Mishnaic commentary Maimonides remarks: "What some people imagine, that it is permissible to cheat a non-Jew, is an error, and based on ignorance. The Almighty—praised be His Name!—instructed us that in redeeming a Hebrew servant from the services of a non-Jew owner 'he shall reckon with him that bought him'" <ref>Lev. xxvi. 50</ref>, meaning to be careful in his calculation not to cheat the non-Jew. This was in Palestine, where the Jews had the upper hand over the non-Jews. How much more should the law be observed at the present time, when they have no sovereignty over the non-Jews. Moreover, neglect of the precept would cause the desecration of His Name, which is a great sin. Deception, duplicity, cheating, and circumvention toward a non-Jew are despicable to the Almighty, as "all that do unrighteously are an abomination unto the Lord thy G-d" <ref>Deut. xxv. 16; commentary to Kelim xii. 7</ref>.
 Moses of Coucy (thirteenth century) writes: "I have been preaching before those exiled to Spain and to other non-Jew countries, that, just because our exile is so prolonged, it behooves Israel to separate from worldly vanities and to cleave to the seal of the Holy One, which is Truth, and not to lie, either to Jew or non-Jew, nor to deceive them in the least thing; to consecrate themselves above others, as 'the remnant of Israel shall not do iniquity nor speak lies.' . . . Behold, the visitation of the Flood for the violence done to the wicked non-Jews!" <ref>"Semag," § 74</ref>.

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 That antipathy was due to idolatry itself and not to the fact that idolaters were of non-Jewish stock, appears from Chanina bar Chama's discussion with Jonathan b. Eleazar of the question whether one should take a road passing by a temple of idols or one passing through a disreputable district, in which the decision was given in favor of the latter <ref>'Ab. Zarah 17a, b</ref>. It was also this amora who ascribed moral sanctity to the marriages of non-Jews <ref>Noachid?; Yer. Sanh. 58c</ref>, though he himself witnessed gross immoralities perpetrated by non-Jews <ref>'Ab. Zarah 22b</ref>. Yet he is credited with the opinion that during the Messianic time only the heathen will be subject to death <ref>Gen. R. xxvi.</ref>.
 Hezekiah b. Chiyya deduces from II Kings xx. 18 that he who shows hospitality to a heathen brings the penalty of exile upon his own children <ref>Sanh. 104a</ref>.
 Some of the parables of Joshua b. Levi illustrate strikingly the reciprocal feelings entertained in his day between Jews and non-Jews. The latter accused the former of being descended from illegitimate compulsory connection between their female ancestors and the Egyptians <ref>Pesik.. 82b</ref>; the Jews, in turn, likened the Romans to dogs <ref>referring to Isa. lvi. 11; Midr. Teh. to Ps. iv. 8; comp. Matt. xv. 26; Mark vii. 27; Bacher, ''Ag. Pal. Amor.'' 1. 146-147</ref>. That Joshua had objections only to the Jews following the evil practises of the non-Jews, is evidenced by his comments on Ezek v. 7, xi. 12 <ref>Sanh. 39b</ref>, in which he points out that Israel deserved censure for rejecting the good customs as well as for adopting the evil ones of the nations ("Ye have not done according to the approved among them [''ke-metukhanim she-bahem''], but we have done according to the corrupt ones [''ke-mekhulkhalim she-bahem'']"). His liberality is also attested in his legendary visits to paradise and hell for the purpose of ascertaining whether non-Jews were to be found in the former <ref>Jellinek, l.c. ii. 48-51</ref>.
-===Johanan.===
+===Johanan bar Nappacha===
 Johanan bar Nappacha complains of the insults and injuries offered by non-Jews to his people <ref>referring to Lam. iii. 21; Pes. 139b; Cant. R. ii. 14; Ex. R. xxi.</ref>. He lays stress on the fact that G-d offered the Law to all nations, who refused to accept it <ref>'Ab. Zarah 2b</ref>; therefore while the virus of lust that the serpent injected into Eve was neutralized in Israel, the "nations of the world" still have it in their blood <ref>Shab. 145b; Yeb. 103b; 'Ab. Zarah 22b</ref>. "The wise among the heathen is called and must be honored as a wise man" <ref>Meg. 16a</ref>, is one of Johanan's sayings, though he is also the author of another which holds that, as the Torah was given as a heritage to Israel, a non-Israelite deserves death if he studies it <ref>Sanh. 59a</ref>. Notwithstanding all this, he maintains that non-Jews outside of Palestine are not to be regarded as idolaters, but as observers of their ancestral customs <ref>Chul. 13b</ref>. Significant of the attitude of the non-Jews toward the Jews in his day is his observation that when a non-Jew touches the pot placed on the common hearth by a Jew, the latter does not deem it rendered unclean; but that as soon as a Jew touches the pot of the non-Jew, the latter shouts "Unclean!" <ref>Esther R. ii. 3</ref>. Under certain circumstances, Johanan permitted the eating of food prepared by non-Jews <ref>Yeb. 46a</ref>. His also is the maxim, "Whosoever abandons idolatry is called 'Jew'" <ref>Meg. 13a</ref>.
 Resh Lakhish prohibited the use of water which had been revered by heathens; but he had to recall his decision <ref>'Ab. Zarah 58b; comp. Yer. Sheb. 38b, c, concerning a public bath in which was a statue of Aphrodite</ref>.
 Eleazar ben Pedat observes that the suggestion of intermarriage always comes from the non-Jew side: "Never does an Israelite put his finger into the mouth of a non-Israelite, unless the latter has first put his into the mouth of the Israelite" <ref>Gen. R. lxxx.</ref>. According to Eleazar, the Jew and not the heathen is bound to sanctify G-d's name <ref>Yer. Sheb. 35a</ref>. Murders committed by non-Jews are recorded by G-d on His own cloak in order that He may have authentic proof of their atrocities <ref>Midr. Teh. to Ps. ix. 13</ref>.
 ===Abbahu.===
 Abbahu calls attention to the fact that the non-Jews as well as Israel were offered the Torah <ref>Pesik.. 200a; Tan., Berakah, 3</ref>. He complains also of the insults to which Jews are exposed in the theaters of the non-Jews <ref>Proem 17 to Lam. R.</ref> by non-Jew actors and attendants. He indorsed the law <ref>B. K.. iv. 3</ref> according to which a non-Jew whose ox had been gored by the ox of a Jew was not entitled to damages <ref>B. K.. 32a</ref>.
 Assi is the author of the injunction not to instruct the non-Jew in the Torah <ref>Chag. 13a</ref>.
 Isaac Nappacha is the author of some parables in which Israel is exalted to offset the slanders of the non-Jews; and the latter, in turn, are spoken of in terms of contumely <ref>Bacher, ''Ag. Pal. Amor.'' ii. 291</ref>.
 Levi enumerates six commandments <ref>prohibitions of polytheism and of blasphemy; the institution of courts of justice; prohibitions of shedding of blood, of incest, and of robbery</ref> which are binding upon all men <ref>Gen. R. xvi.; Midr. Teh. to Ps. i. 10; the ''Torat Adonai'' is said to consist of these universal laws; so that to be the "happy" man of whom the psalm speaks one need not necessarily be a Jew</ref>. Levi is, however, very severe in his reflections on the morality of the non-Jews <ref>Cant. R. to vi. 8; see Bacher, l.c. p. 329, note 7</ref>. Levi claims that the injunction not to take revenge <ref>Lev. xix. 18</ref> does not apply to non-Jews <ref>Eccl. R. viii. 4</ref>.
 Abba b. Kahana protests, in an explanation of Ruth iv. 16, against racial arrogance on the part of Israel <ref>Ruth R. viii.</ref>.
 Jonah and Jose permitted the baking of bread for the Roman soldiers on Sabbath-day <ref>Yer. Sheb. 35a; Yer. Sanh. 21b; comp. Yer. Betzah 60c</ref>. Yet they would not permit the use of a scroll partially burned in a conflagration caused by these same soldiers.
 Judan applies the proverb, "A fat animal becomes lean; but a lean one has to give up the ghost," to Israel's maltreatment on the part of the non-Jews <ref>Lam. R. iii. 20</ref>.
 Phinehas b. Chama calls attention to the fact that Israel on Sukkot offered seventy heifers for all the nations, and prayed for them, applying the verse <ref>Ps. cix. 4</ref>. "On account of my love they attack me" <ref>Pes. 193b</ref>. Other stories of his bring out the fact that in his day the Jews were not liked by their non-Jew neighbors <ref>Yer. Peah 16d; Lam. R. i. 11; comp. Josephus, ''B. J.'' iii. 2, § 2</ref>.
 Abin testifies that Israel was called by others "stubborn" and "stiff-necked" <ref>Ex. R. xlii.: </ref>.
 Tanchuma enjoins that if one is greeted by a non-Jew with the salutation of peace or a blessing, one should answer "Amen!"<ref>; Yer. Ber. 12c; Yer. Suk. 54a; Yer. Meg. 72a</ref>, though he likens the nations to wolves and Israel to a lamb <ref>Pesik.. R. ix. [ed. Friedmann, p.32a]</ref>.

← Older revision	Revision as of 09:32, 28 March 2007
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 ===Rabbi Akiba.===
 Rabbi Akiba, like Hillel, declared the command to love one's neighbor as oneself <ref>Lev. xix. 18</ref> to be the fundamental proposition of religion <ref>Sifra, Khedoshim, ed. Weiss, p. 89a; Yer. Ned. 41c; Gen. R. xxiv.; comp. Ab. iii. 14; Ab. R. N. xxxix.</ref>. Robbery of which a non-Jew is the victim is robbery <ref>B. B. 113a</ref>. For his opinion of the non-Jewish peoples, the "Dialogue Between Israel and the non-Jews" is characteristic <ref>Mek., Beshallah., ed. Weiss, p. 44b; Sifre, Deut. 343; Cant. R. i. 3, v. 9, vi. 1</ref>. In another dialogue, Israel's monotheism is shown to be far superior to the ever-changing belief of the non-Jews <ref>Mek., Yitro, x.</ref>. His contempt for the folly of idolatry as practised by the Romans is apparent in his conversation with Rufus, in which he compares the G-ds to dogs <ref>Tan. Terumah, ed. Stettin, p. 139; comp. Gra"tz, ''Gesch.'' iv. 447</ref>.
-Among Akiba's disciples Tarphon is noted for his antipathy to the Jud?o-Christians, whose books he would burn without regard for the name of G-d occurring therein, preferring the temple of idolaters to them <ref>Shab. 116a</ref>.
+===Rabbi Tarphon===
 Jose the Galilean rebukes Israel for its inconstancy, which he contrasts with the fidelity shown by the non-Jews to their ancestral beliefs <ref>Sifre, Deut. 87</ref>. The good done by non-Jews is rewarded <ref>see Gen. xxiii. 5; Sifra, Achare Mot, 85b</ref>.
 Judah ben Baba holds that by the customs of the heathen forbidden in Lev. xviii. 3 were meant the cosmetic arts <ref>Sifra, 86a: see commentary of Abraham ben David ad loc.; comp. Tosef., Sot.ah, xv. 9; Shab. 62b</ref>.
 ===R. Mei"r.===
 The warning against the practises of the heathen in Lev. xviii. 3 is interpreted by R. Mei"r <ref>Sifra, 85b</ref> to refer to the superstitions "of the Amorites" <ref>enumerated in Shab. 67a; comp. Mishnah vi., last section</ref>. He would not permit Jews to visit the theaters (arenas) of the non-Jews, because blood is spilled and idols are worshiped there <ref>Tosef., 'Ab. Zarah, ii. 5; 'Ab. Zarah 18b; Yer. Sanh. 40a; Ab. R. N. xxi.</ref>. Intolerant of idolatry <ref>'Ab. Zarah i. 5, 8; ii. 2, 4; iii. 1; Blumenthal, ''Rabbi Mei"r,'' pp. 82 et seq.</ref>, it was Mei"r who insisted that in Lev. xviii. 5 the word ''man,'' not ''priest,'' ''Levite,'' or ''Israelite,'' occurs, and thus claimed that a non-Jew versed in the Torah equals in rank the high priest <ref>B. K.. 38a; Sanh. 59a; Sifra, 86b, where II Sam. vii. 19 [''ha-adam'']; Isa. xxvi. 2, ''goi tzaddik.''; Ps. xxxiii. 1, ''tzaddikhim,'' and cxxv. 4, ''le-t.obim,'' are similarly applied to non-Jew and Jew alike</ref>. He was on a footing of intimacy with the non-Jew philosopher Euonymos of Gadara <ref>Gra"tz, l.c. iv. 469</ref>. In an anecdote, significant as indicating the freedom of intercourse between Jew and non-Jew, Mei"r illustrates the cynic materialism of a rich heathen who, angry at the lack of a trifle at his banquet, which offered "whatever was created in six days," broke a rich plate; pleading that, as the world to come was for Israel, he had to look to this world for his pleasures <ref>Pesik.. 59b; Num. R. xxi.</ref>. Mei"r has a conversation with a ''hegemon,'' who expresses his contempt of Israel, calling the Israelites slaves; whereupon Mei"r shows that Israel is a wayward son, always finding, if ready to repent, the father's house open <ref>Jellinek, ''B. H.'' I. 21</ref>. This anecdote, also, is significant as showing the sentiments of the non-Jews toward the Jews.
 Simon ben Yochai is preeminently the anti-non-Jew teacher. In a collection of three sayings of his, beginning with the keyword <ref>Yer. Khid. 66c; Massek. Soferim xv. 10; Mek., Beshal-lah., 27a; Tan., Wayera, ed. Buber, 20</ref>, is found the expression, often quoted by anti-Semites, ''T.ob shebe-goyyim harog'' (="The best among the non-Jews deserves to be killed"). This utterance has been felt by Jews to be due to an exaggerated antipathy on the part of a fanatic whose life experiences may furnish an explanation for his animosity; hence in the various versions the reading has been altered, "The best among the Egyptians" being generally substituted. In the connection in which it stands, the import of this observation is similar to that of the two others: "The most pious woman is addicted to sorcery"; "The best of snakes ought to have its head crushed" <ref>comp. the saying, "Scratch a Russian and you will find a Tartar"</ref>.
 On the basis of Hab. iii. 6, Simon b. Yochai argued that, of all the nations, Israel alone was worthy to receive the Law <ref>Lev. R. xiii.</ref>. The non-Jews, according to him, would not observe the seven laws given to the Noachid? <ref>Tosef., Sot.ah, viii. 7; Sot.ah 35b</ref>, though the Law was written on the altar <ref>Deut. xxvi. 8</ref> in the seventy languages. Hence, while Israel is like the patient ass, the non-Jews resemble the easy-going, selfish dog <ref>Lev. R. xiii.; Sifre, Deut., Wezot ha-Berakah, 343</ref>. Yet Simon speaks of the friendly reception given to non-Jews <ref>Sifre, Deut. 1</ref>. The idols were called ''elilim'' to indicate that "woe is them that worship them" <ref>Jellinek, l.c. v. 78</ref>. Simon b. Yochai insists upon the destruction of idols, but in a different manner from that proposed by others <ref>'Ab. Zarah iii. 3; 'Ab. Zarah 43b</ref>. He extends to non-Jews the prohibition against sorcery in Deut. xviii. 10 et seq. <ref>Tosef., 'Ab. Zarah, viii. 6; Sanh. 55b</ref>.
 Judah ben 'Illai recommends the daily recital of the benediction. "Blessed be Thou . . . who hast not made me a goi" <ref>Tosef., Ber. vii. 18: Men. 43b, sometimes ascribed to Mei"r; see Weiss, ''Dor,'' ii. 137</ref>. Judah is confident that the heathen (non-Jews) will ultimately come to shame <ref>Isa. lxvi. 5; B. M. 33b</ref>.The non-Jews took copies of the Torah, and yet did not accept it <ref>Sot.ah 35b</ref>.
 Eliezer, the son of Jose the Galilean, calls the non-Jews poor ''goyyim dawim,'' because they would not accept the Torah <ref>Mek., Yitro. 62a</ref>, referring to Hab. iii. 6 and Ps. cxlvii. 20.
 Joshua ben Kharcha is reported to have answered the accusation—still repeated in modern anti-Semitic literature—that Israel refuses to celebrate the festivals of the non-Jews—by showing that nature's bounties bring joy to all men alike <ref>Gen. R. xiii.</ref>.
 Simon ben Gamaliel II. is the author of the saying that strict justice shall be done the non-Jew, who shall elect whether he shall be tried according to the Jewish or the non-Jew code <ref>Sifre, Deut. 16</ref>.
 Josiah holds that every idolatrous heathen is an enemy of Israel <ref>Mek., Mishpat.im, 99a</ref>.
 Jonathan insists that eclipses are of bad augury for non-Jews only, according to Jer. x. 2 <ref>Mek., Bo, 19b</ref>.
 According to Hananiah b. Akabia the word <ref>Ex. xxi. 14</ref> may perhaps exclude the non-Jew; but the shedding of the blood of non-Israelites, while not cognizable by human courts, will be punished by the heavenly tribunal <ref>Mek., Mishpat.im, 80b</ref>.
 Why non-Jew circuses and theaters continued while the Temple was in ruins, was a perplexing problem for many a plous Jew. Nehorai learns from Elijah that this is the cause of earthquakes <ref>Yer. Ber. 13c; Midr. Teh. to Ps. xviii. 8</ref>.
 Jacob, the grandson of Elisha ben Abuya, reports having seen a heathen bind his father and throw him to his dog as food <ref>Sifre, Deut. 81</ref>.
 Simon ben Eleazar does not favor the social amenities (e.g., invitations to wedding-feasts) between non-Jews and Jews <ref>Tosef., 'Ab. Zarah, iv. 6; Ab. R. N. xxvi.; 'Ab. Zarah 8a</ref>, referring to Ex. xxxiv. 16.
 According to Judah ha-Nasi, the word ''goyyim'' designates the nations that subjected Israel, while ''ummim'' denotes those that did not. Both must praise the G-d of Israel <ref>Midr. Teh. to Ps. cxvii. 1</ref>.
 Phinehas ben Jair prohibits the appropriation of an object lost by a non-Jew, as this is tantamount to desecrating G-d's name <ref>B. K. 113b</ref>.
 Simon ben Jose likens Israel to a stone, and the non-Jews to a potsherd <ref>Isa. xxx. 14</ref>, applying the proverb: "If the stone falls on the pot, wo to the pot; if the pot falls on the stone, wo to the pot." This he offered as a consolation to persecuted Israel <ref>Esther R. iii. 6</ref>.
 Antigonus complains of the cruelty of the non-Jews toward Israel <ref>Mek., Beshallah., 27a; but see Bacher, ''Ag. Tan.'' ii. 331, note 2</ref>.

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 ===Gamaliel II.===
 Of Gamaliel II. is recorded a conversation with two pseudo-proselyte generals, who, being sent to investigate Jewish practises, take exception only to the provision permitting to a Jew the use of property stolen from a non-Jew <ref>Sifre, Deut. 344; B. K. 38a—the law which, in regard to the damage done by a goring ox, does not put Jew and non-Jew on an equal footing</ref>. In Yer. B. K.. 4b they censure also the prohibition of Jewish women from attending non-Jewish women as midwives and nurses. Gamaliel is reported to have repealed the obnoxious law on the use of stolen property, <ref>see Gra"tz in ''Monatsschrift,'' 1881, p. 493</ref>.
 Eliezer b. Hyrcanus is less tolerant. According to him, the mind of every non-Jew is always intent upon idolatry <ref>Git.. 45b</ref>. The cattle of a heathen is unfit for sacrifices <ref>'Ab. Zarah 23b</ref>. Explaining Prov. xiv. 34, he maintains that the non-Jews only practise charity in order to make for themselves a name <ref>B. B. 10b; Pesik.. 12b; Gamaliel is credited with the same opinion in B. B. 10b</ref>. The persecutions which, at the instigation of Jud?o-Christians, Eliezer had suffered at the hands of the Romans may explain his attitude, as well as his opinion that the non-Jews have no share in the life to come <ref>Tosef., Sanh. xiii. 2; Sanh. 105a</ref>. He nevertheless cites the example of a non-Jew, Dama b. Netina, as illustrative of the command to honor father and mother <ref>Khid. 31a; 'Ab. Zarah 23b; comp. Yer. Peah 15c; Khid. 61b; Pesik.. R. xxiii.</ref>.
 Joshua b. Hananiah, contrary to Eliezer b. Hyrcanus, contends that there are righteous men among the non-Jews, and that these will enter the world to come <ref>Tosef., Sanh. xiii. 2</ref>, though as a rule non-Jews cling to vain things and are rejected <ref>Prov. xxviii. 19; Gen. R. lxxxii.</ref>. He excludes the descendants of Amalek from the Messianic kingdom <ref>Sifre, Deut. 310; Mek., Yitro, 57a</ref>; while all other non-Jews will adopt monotheism <ref>'Ab. Zarah 24a; comp. Pesik.. 28b</ref>. He is of the decided opinion that non-Jews (heathen) may lead a righteous life and thus escape Gehenna <ref>see Zunz, ''G. V.'' p. 269, note d; Bacher, ''Ag. Tan.'' i. 159</ref>. It is also reported of Joshua b. Hananiah that in a dialogue with the emperor Hadrian—who insisted that, as G-d's name was not mentioned in those parts of the Decalogue addressed to all men, the non-Jews were preferred, Israel being threatened with greater punishments-he controverted that monarch's conclusions by means of an illustration not very complimentary to the non-Jews <ref>Pesik.. R. xxi.</ref>.
 Eleazar of Modi'im, in reference to Micah iv. 5, explains that Israel, though guilty of the same sins as the non-Jews, will not enter hell, while the non-Jews will <ref>Cant. R. ii. 1</ref>. In another of his homilies, however, he speaks of the joy with which the non-Jews blessed Israel for having accepted the Decalogue <ref>Zeb. 116a</ref>. On the whole, he is very bitter in his condemnations of the heathen. "They profit by their deeds of love and benevolence to slander Israel" <ref>referring to Jer. xl. 3; B. B. 10a</ref>.
 Eleazar ben Azariah maintains, on the basis of Ex. xxi. 1, that a judgment rendered by a non-Jewish (Roman) court is not valid for a Jew (Mek., Mishpat.im). There is also recorded a high tribute which he paid to a heathen servant, T.abi, who was so worthy that Eleazar declares he felt that he himself ought to be the servant <ref>Mldr. Mishle to Prov. ix. 2</ref>.
 Ishmael ben Elisha used to reply to the heathen's benedictions and imprecations: "The word befitting you has long since been uttered." Asked for an explanation, he referred to Gen. xxvii. 29 (Hebr.): "Those that curse thee shall be cursed; those that bless thee shall be blessed" <ref>Gen. R. lxvi.</ref>. In order to protect Jews he would decide in their favor, using the non-Jewish or the Jewish code as suited the occasion <ref>Sifre, Deut. 16; in B. K.. 113a this is given as a prescription of his for others to follow, against which Akiba, recognizing that this would be a profanation of G-d's name, protests ''mi-pene khiddush ha-Shem''</ref>.