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| − | '''Karaim''' refers to an ethno-linguistic group descended from speakers of the Karaim language (Crimean dialect: ''къарай тили'', Trakai dialect: ''karaj tili'', Turkish dialect: ''karay dili'') is a [[Kypchak Turkic language]]. It is spoken by ca. 1,130 [[Karaims]] and [[Karaylar]] – ethnic [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] adherents of Islamized Mosaism in [[Lithuania]], [[Poland]] and [[Crimea]] and [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] in [[Ukraine]]. The three main dialects are those of Crimea, [[Trakai]]-[[Vilnius]] and [[Lutsk]]-[[Halych]] all of which are critically [[endangered language|endangered]].
| + | *Karaim (adjective) pertaining to the culture language and religion of the [[Karaims]] |
| − | | + | *A Karaim (singular noun) is a member of the ethno-religious group called [[Karaims]] not to be confused with Ha-Yehudim Ha-Qaraim. |
| − | The Lithuanian dialect of Karaim is spoken mainly in the town of [[Trakai]] (also known as Troki) by a small community. Trakai is a former residence of the [[Grand Duke of Lithuania]], and [[Karaims]] were brought there by [[Grand Duke]] [[Vytautas]] in 1397–1398 to defend [[Trakai Island Castle|the castle]]. There is a chance the language will survive in Trakai as a result of official support as well as its appeal to tourists.
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| − | ==History==
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| − | ===Karaims in Crimea and Lithuania===
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| − | Most of the known history is gathered from correspondence between the populations of Karaims and populations elsewhere in the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries (Akhiezer 2003). Furthermore, a large number of documents pertaining to the Crimean population of Karaim were burned during the 1736 Russian invasion of the Tatar Khanate capital of Bakhchisarai (Akhiezer 2003).
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| − | Schur 1995 says that Karaims are descendants of Karaite merchants on the active trade routes from Crimea to China and Central Asia who migrated to Crimea from the [[Byzantine Empire]], presumably adopting a [[Turkic language]] upon their arrival in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
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| − | A migration of Karaite Jews from Istanbul to Crimea is documented following a fire in the Jewish quarter of [[Constantinople]] (modern [[Istanbul]]) in 1203 (Tsoffar 2006) and were apparently assimilated by the Karaims, descendants of [[Khazars]] (IICK 2007) and Israelite tribes from the time of the first Exile by an Assyrian King. Karaim-Karaylar Gahan [[Abraham Firkovich]] collected the documents arguing in favor of this theory before the Russian tsar. He was of the opinion that Israelites from Assyria had gone into the North Caucasus and from there, with the permission of Assyrian king into the Crimean peninsula. Walfish and Kizilov have discussed the authenticity of Firkovich's finds.<ref>Barry Dov Walfish, and Mikhail Kizilov, ''Bibliographia Karaitica: an Annotated bibliography of Karaites and Karaism. Karaite Texts and Studies'', pub BRILL, 2010, ISBN 9004189270, p198.</ref>
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| − | The origin of the Karaites in Lithuania is much better documented and agreed upon by the scholars. The Lithuanian Karaites originated in Crimea. In 1392, the Grand Duke [[Vytautas]] of Lithuania defeated the [[Crimean Tatars]] and relocated 330 Karaims families to Lithuania (Schur 1995). They settled primarily in Vilnius and Trakai, maintaining their Turkic language; there has been further minor settlement in [[Biržai]], [[Pasvalys]], [[Kudirkos Naumiestis|Naujamiestis]] and [[Upytė]]. Despite a history through the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that included disease, and famine, Lithuania was somewhat less affected by such turmoil than surrounding areas. As a result, Lithuanian Karaims had a relative sense of stability over those years, and maintained their isolation as a group, keeping their Turkic language rather than abandoning it for the local languages (“Karaim Homepage” 1998).
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| − | ===Genetic affiliation of the Karaim language===
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| − | Karaim is a member of the [[Turkic languages|Turkic language]] family, a group of languages of Eurasia spoken by historically nomadic peoples. Within the Turkic family, Karaim is identified as a member of the [[Kypchak languages|Kypchak language]] group, in turn a member of the Western branch of the Turkic language family (Dahl et al. 2001). Within the Western branch, Karaim is a part of the Ponto-Caspian subfamily (Ethnologue 2007). This language subfamily also includes the [[Crimean Tatar language|Crimean Tatar]] of Ukraine and Uzbekistan, and [[Karachay-Balkar]] and [[Kumyk language|Kumyk]] of Russia. The close relation of Karaim to Kypchak and Crimean Tatar makes sense in light of the beginnings of the Lithuanian Karaim people in Crimea. One hypothesis is that Khazar nobility converted to Karaite Judaism in the late eighth or early ninth century and were followed by a portion of the general population. This may also have occurred later, under Mongol rule, during an influx of people from Byzantium (Tütüncü et al. 1998).
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| − | As all Turkic languages, Karaim grammar is characterized by [[agglutinative language|agglutination]] and [[vowel harmony]]. Genetic evidence for the inclusion of the Karaim language in the Turkic language family is undisputed, based on common vocabulary and grammar. Karaim has a historically [[Subject-object-verb|SOV word order]], extensive suffixing agglutination, the presence of vowel harmony, and a lack of gender or noun classes. Lithuanian Karaim has maintained most of these Turkic features despite its history of more than six hundred years in the environment of the Lithuanian, Russian, and Polish languages.
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| − | Most of the religious terminology in the Karaim language is Arabic in etymology, showing the origins of the culture in the Middle East (Zajaczkowski 1961). A few religious terms are Hebrew as well. Arabic, Hebrew, and Persian had the earliest influences on the lexicon of Karaim, while later on in its history, the Russian, Ukrainian, and Polish languages made significant contributions to the Karaim lexicon of Karaite Jews living in Russia, Ukraine, Poland, and Lithuania.
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| − | ==Language ecology==
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| − | ===Distribution of Karaim speakers===
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| − | Today, there are [[Karaim]] living in [[Turkey]], [[Crimea]], [[Lithuania]], [[Poland]], [[Israel]], and the [[United States]]. However, there only remain about 200 Karaim in [[Lithuania]], only one quarter of whom are competent speakers of the Karaim language (Csató 2001).
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| − | Karaim can be subdivided into three [[dialect]]s. The now-extinct eastern dialect, known simply as Crimean Karaim, was spoken in [[Crimea]] until the early 1900s. The northwestern dialect, also called Trakai, is spoken in [[Lithuania]], mainly in the towns of [[Trakai]] and [[Vilnius]]. The southwestern dialect, also known as the Lutsk or Halich dialect, spoken in [[Ukraine]], was near-extinct with only six speakers in a single town as of 2001 (Csató 2001). Crimean Karaim is considered to make up the “Eastern group,” while the Trakai and Lutsk dialects comprise the “Western group.”
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| − | ===Language contact===
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| − | Throughout its long and complicated history, Karaim has experienced extensive language contact. A past rooted in Mesopotamia and persisting connections to the Arab world resulted in Arabic words which likely carried over via the migration of the Crimean and Lithuanian Karaim people from Mesopotamia. The Karaim language was spoken in Crimea during the rule of the Ottoman empire, so there is also a significant history of contact with Turkish, a member of the same language family. Finally, since Karaim has always been a small minority language in the other areas to which it dispersed, Karaim coexisted with Lithuanian, Polish, Ukrainian, and Russian, which were all dominant majority languages in the areas where Karaim people lived and spoke their language.
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| − | Karaim speakers show a strong tendency towards code-copying (Csató 2001). Code-copying differs from code-switching in that speakers don’t just switch from one language to another, but actually transfer lexical items and grammatical features from one language to another in processes that may be only for a single instances, or that may have much more lasting effects on language typology (Csató 2001). Extensive code-copying is indicative both of the ever-shrinking population of Karaim speakers (leading to an insufficient Karaim lexicon and a high frequency of borrowing from Russian, Polish, and Slavonic languages) and of the high level of language contact in the regions where Karaim is spoken.
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| − | ===Multilingualism===
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| − | Due to the very small number of speakers of [[Karaim]] and the high level of multilingualism in [[Lithuania]] in general, there is also a high level of multilingualism among [[Karaim]] speakers. Karaim speakers also communicate with the dominant languages of their respective regions, including [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], and [[Russian language|Russian]]. Some also have religious knowledge of [[Hebrew]] (Csató 2001). Multilingualism is a necessity for Karaim speakers, because without other languages the majority would not even be able to communicate with members of their own family (Csató 2001).
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| − | ===Language health===
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| − | Most dialects of Karaim are now extinct. Maintenance of the Karaim language in [[Lithuania]] is now endangered due to the dispersal of [[Karaim]] speakers under the Soviet regime [[post-World War II]] and the very small number and old age of fluent speakers remaining (Csató 2001). Children and grandchildren of [[Karaim]] speakers speak [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], or [[Russian language|Russian]], and only the oldest generation still speaks Karaim.
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| − | ==Phonology==
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| − | ===Consonant inventory===
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| − | {|
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| − | |||labial||labiodental||alveolar||postalveolar||palatal||velar||uvular||pharyngeal
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| − | |-
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| − | |stops||p b|| ||t d|| || || ||k g|| ||
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| − | |-
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| − | |nasals|| m|| || n|| || || || || ||
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| − | |-
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| − | |fricatives|| ||f v||s z||š ž|| || || γ||χ || ||
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| − | |-
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| − | |approximates|| || || r|| || j|| || || ||ł
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| − | |}
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| − | ===Vowel inventory===
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| − | {|
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| − | |i||y||ɯ||u
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| − | |-
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| − | |e||ø|| ||o
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| − | |-
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| − | | || ||ɑ||
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| − | |}
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| − | ===Phonotactics===
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| − | While most languages of the Turkic family exhibit palatal vowel harmony, Trakai Karaim shows harmony in palatalization of consonants. Thus, in any given word, only palatalized or only non-palatalized consonants can be found (Németh 2003). Palatalized consonants occur in the presence of front vowels, and non-palatalized consonants occur in the presence of back vowels. Similarly to most Turkic languages, virtually all of the consonants in Karaim exist in both a palatalized and a non-palatalized form, which may be further evidence of their genetic relationship (Hansson 2007). However, care must be taken in assuming as much, because Karaim has been in contact with Turkic languages in Lithuania for hundreds of years.
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| − | Karaim also exhibits vowel harmony, whereby suffix vowels harmonize for front or back quality with the vowels in the stem of a word (Zajaczkowski 1961).
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| − | ==Morphology==
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| − | Karaim morphology is suffixing and highly agglutinating. The Karaim language lacks prefixes and uses postpositions. Nouns are inflected for seven cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, locative, and instrumental, which is rare in other Turkic languages). A notable feature of verb conjugation in Karaim is the possibility of abbreviated forms, as shown below for the verb [ał], “to take” (Németh 2003):
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| − | Long form Short form
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| − | 1.sg. ał-a-myn ał-a-m
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| − | 2.sg. ał-a-syn ał-a-s
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| − | 3.sg. ał-a-dyr ał-a-d ~ ał-a-dy
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| − | 1.pl. ał-a-byz ---
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| − | 2.pl. ał-a-syz ---
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| − | 3.pl. ał-dyr-łar ał-d-łar ~ ał-dy-łar
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| − | ==Syntax==
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| − | Historically, Karaim had a typically Turkic SOV word order. However, it appears to have acquired somewhat free word order due to extensive language contact situations, and currently has a preference for SVO constructions (Csató 2001). Due to the agglutinative nature of Karaim morphology, pronominal subjects are frequently dropped as the same information is already represented in the inflection of the main verb. Karaim is head-final and uses postpositions.
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| − | Karaim syntax exhibits multiple instances of code-copying, whereby Karaim merges with syntactic properties of other languages in its area due to strong language contact situations (Csató 2001). The impact of such language contact is also evident in the Karaim lexicon, which has extensive borrowing (Zajaczkowski 1961). In more modern times, the significant borrowing is also representative of insufficiencies in the lexicon (Csató 2001).
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| − | ==Writing system==
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| − | In Crimea and Ukraine, Karaim was written using [[Cyrillic script]], while in Lithuania and Poland, a modified Latin alphabet is used. From the 17th century up until the 19th century, [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] letters were used.
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| − | ==References==
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| − | {{Reflist}}
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| − | 4. [http://karai.crimea.ua/22-jazyk.html Karaim language] (Russian)
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| − | ==Further reading==
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| − | *Akhiezer, Golda. 2003. “The history of the Crimean Karaites during the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries.” pp. 729–757 in Polliack, Meira (ed.). Karaite Judaism: A Guide to its History and Literary Sources. Boston: Brill.
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| − | *Astren, Fred. 2004. Karaite Judaism and Historical Understanding. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press.
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| − | * Csató, Éva Ágnes, Nathan, D., & Firkavičiūtė, K. (2003). ''Spoken Karaim''. [London: School of Oriental and African Studies].
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| − | *---. 2001. “Syntactic code-copying in Karaim.”
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| − | *[[Östen Dahl|Dahl, Östen]] and Maria Koptjevskaja-Tamm. 2001. Circum-Baltic Languages.
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| − | *Gil, Moshe. 2003. “The origins of the Karaites.” pp. 73–118 in Polliack, Meira (ed.). Karaite Judaism: A Guide to its History and Literary Sources. Boston: Brill.
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| − | *Hansson, Gunnar Ólafur. 2007. “On the evolution of consonant harmony: the case of secondary articulation agreement.” Phonology. 24: 77-120.
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| − | *International Institute of the Crimean Karaites (IICK). 2007. “Crimean Karaites.” <http://karaim-institute.narod.ru/index.htm>.
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| − | *Khan, Geoffrey. 2000. The Early Karaite Tradition of Hebrew Grammatical Thought. Boston: Brill.
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| − | * Kocaoğlu, T., & Firkovičius, M. (2006). ''Karay: the Trakai dialect''. Languages of the world, 458. Muenchen: Lincom Europa. ISBN 3-89586-490-0
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| − | *[http://karaim-institute.narod.ru/activity/lgd-1.rtf The language of Western Ukrainian Karaites: Part one. A brief essay : comp. by V. A. Mireyev, N. D. Abrahamowicz – Simferopol, Ukraine – Polevskoy, Russia – Slippery Rock, USA: 2008 – 96 pp.]
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| − | *[http://karaim-institute.narod.ru/activity/lgd-2.rtf The language of Western Ukrainian Karaites: Part two. Karaite–Russian–Ukrainian–English dictionary :comp. by V. A. Mireyev, N. D. Abrahamowicz – Simferopol, Ukraine – Polevskoy, Russia – Slippery Rock, USA: 2008 – 184 pp.]
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| − | *[http://karaim-institute.narod.ru/activity/lgd-3.txt The language of Western Ukrainian Karaites: Part three. Russian–Karaite Dictionary : comp. by V. A. Mireyev, N. D. Abrahamowicz – Simferopol, Ukraine – Polevskoy, Russia – Slippery Rock, USA: 2008 – 116 pp.]
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| − | *Németh, Michał. 2003. “Grammatical features.” Karaimi. <http://www.karaimi.org/index_en.php?p=301>.
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| − | *Nemoy, Leon. 1987. “Karaites.” In Mircea Eliade, ed., The Encyclopedia of Religion. New York: MacMillan.
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| − | *Oesterley, W. O. E. and G. H. Box. 1920. A Short Survey of the Literature of Rabbinical and Mediaeval Judaism. Burt Franklin: New York.
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| − | *Schur, Nathan. 1995. “Karaites in Lithuania.” in The Karaite Encyclopedia. <http://www.turkiye.net/sota/karalit.html>.
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| − | *SIL International. 2007. “Linguistic Lineage for Karaim.” Ethnologue.com. <http://www.ethnologue.com/show_lang_family.asp?code=kdrZ>.
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| − | *Tsoffar, Ruth. 2006. Stains of Culture: an Ethno-Reading of Karaite Jewish Women. Detroit: Wayne State University Press.
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| − | *Tütüncü, Mehmet and Inci Bowman. 1998. “Karaim Homepage.” <http://www.turkiye.net/sota/karaim.html>.
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| − | *Zajaczkowski, Ananiasz. 1961. Karaims in Poland.
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| − | ==External links==
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| − | *[http://www.dnathan.com/language/karaim/dic/karaim-russian/index.html Concise Karaim-Russian On-Line Dictionary]
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| − | *[http://www.suduva.com/virdainas/atamyz.htm Karaim language Lord's Prayer]
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