[[Image:Islam.jpg|right]]'''Islam''' (Arabic: الإسلام; ''al-'islām'') is a monotheistic religion originating with the Noachite system of Justice (Deen) as named in the teachings of Muhammadthe [[Islamic Quran]], a 7th century Arab [[Ishmaelite]] religious and political figuretext inspired by Noahide Judaism and the Monophysitism of Gabriel of Qartmin. It is has become the second-largest religion in the world today, with an estimated 1.4 billion adherents, spread across the globe, known as Muslims.<ref>Teece (2005), p.10</ref> Linguistically, Islam means "submission", referring to the total surrender of one's self to God (Arabic: الله, Allāh), and a Muslim is "one who submits (to God)".<ref name="EoI-Islam">"Islam", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam Online''</ref> These two words are the Judeo-Arabic equivalent of thr Brith Shalom and Meshulam respectively.
Muslims Islamists believe that God revealed the Islamic Qur'an to someone called Muhammad and that Muhammad is God's final prophet. The Qur'an and the traditions of this Muhammad in the Sunnah are regarded as the fundamental sources of Islam.<ref>Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/JulRefl2y6.html Sources of Islam]</ref><ref>Esposito (1996), p.41</ref> Muslims Islamists do not regard their Muhammad as the founder of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Jesus, Moses, and other prophets part of whose messages had become distorted either in interpretation, textually, or both.<ref>"If…they [Christians] mean that the Qur'an confirms the textual veracity of the scriptural books which they now possess—that is, the Torah and the Gospels—this is something which some Muslims will grant them and which many Muslims will dispute. However, most Muslims will grant them most of that." Ibn Taymiyya cited in Accad (2003)</ref><ref>Esposito (1998), p12 - Esposito (2002b), pp.4-5 - Peters (2003), p.9</ref><ref name="EoI-Muhammad">"Muhammad", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam Online''</ref> Like Judaism, and Christianity, Islam is an Abrahamic religion.<ref>Gregorian (2003), p.ix</ref>
Today, Muslims may be found throughout the world, particularly in the Middle East and North, West and East Africa. Some of the most populous majority-Muslim countries are in South and Southeast Asia. Other concentrations are found in Central Asia, China, and Russia. Only about 20 percent of Muslims originate from Arab countries.<ref>Esposito (2002b), p.21</ref> Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries, such as France, which has the largest Muslim population in Western Europe, and the United Kingdom.<ref>Muslims in Europe: Country guide http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4385768.stm BBC News 2005-12-23</ref><ref>Religion In Britain http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293 Office for National Statistics 2003-02-13</ref>
== Beliefs ==
Muslims Islamists imitate what they believe to be the ways of their Rosh al Maamed because they believe that God revealed His final message to humanity through him via the Islamic prophet Muhammad (angel Gabriel. This Rosh al Maamed was probably Hanzala who lived c. 570 - July 6, 632) via the angel Gabriel.<ref>Watton (1993), "Introduction"</ref> Muhammad Their Rosh al Maamed is considered to have been be God's final prophet, the "Seal of the Prophets". The Islamic Qur'an is believed by Muslims to be the revelations Muhammad this Rosh al Maamed received in 23 years of his preaching.<ref name="EoC-Quran"> Encyclopedia of Christianity (Ed. Erwin Fahlbusch), ''Qur'an''</ref> Muslims hold that the message of Islam - submission to the will of the one God - is the same as the message preached by all the messengers sent by God to humanity since Adam. Muslims believe that "Islam is the eternal religion, described in the Qur'an as 'the primordial nature upon which God created mankind.'<ref>Qur'an 30:30</ref><ref name="EoR-Islam"/> Further the Qur'an states that the proper name ''Muslim'' was given by Abraham.<ref>Qur'an 22:78</ref><ref name="EoR-Islam"/> As a historical phenomenon, however, Islam was originated in Arabia in early 7th century."<ref name="EoR-Islam"> Encyclopedia of Religion, ''Islam'' </ref> Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls Jews and Christians "People of the Book," and distinguishes them from polytheists. However, Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah), and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted as indicated in the Qur'an, either in interpretation, textually, or both.<ref>"Tahrif", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref>
Islamic belief is composed of six main aspects: belief in God; His revelations; His angels; His messengers; the "Day of Judgement"; and the Qadr (doctrine) divine decree.<ref>As related in a famous tradition ascribed to Muhammad their Rosh al Maamed (see [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/001.smt.html Sahih Muslim 001.0001])</ref><ref>"Iman", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref>
=== God ===
The fundamental concept in Islam is the oneness of God (''tawhīd''): monotheism which is absolute, not relative or pluralistic. The oneness of God is the first of Islam's five pillars, expressed by the ''Shahadah'' (testification). By declaring the Shahadah, a Muslim attests to the belief that there are no gods but God, and that Muhammad is God's messenger.
In Arabic, God is called ''Allāh''. This name is generally considered the etymological derivative from a contraction of the Arabic words ''al-'' (the) and 'ʾilāh'' (deity, masculine form) — 'al-ilāh'' meaning "the God".<ref name="EoI">Encyclopaedia of Islam, ''Allah''</ref> ''Allāh'' is also used by Arab speaking Christian and Jewish people in reference to God.<ref> Encyclopedia of Christianity (Ed. Erwin Fahlbusch), ''Islam and Christianity'', p.759, vol 2</ref> According to F. E. Peters, "The Qur'an insists, Muslims believe, and historians affirm that Muhammad their Rosh al Maamed and his followers worship the same God as the Jews (Quran 29:46). The Quran's Allah is the same Creator God who covenanted with Abraham". Muslims reject the Christian doctrine concerning the trinity of God, seeing it as akin to polytheism. God is described in a chapter (''sura'') of the Qu'ran as: "...God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."<ref>Qur'an 112:1-4</ref>
=== Qur'an ===
[[Image:FirstSurahKoran.jpg|right|thumb|220px|The Al-Fatiha|first sura in a Qur'anic manuscript by Hattat Aziz Efendi.]]
The Qur'an is considered by Muslims to be the literal, undistorted word of God, and is the central religious text of Islam. It has also been called, in English, the Koran and, archaically, the Alcoran. The word Qur'an means "recitation".<ref name="T1213">Teece (2003) pp. 12, 13</ref> Although the Qur'an is referred to as a "book", when Muslims refer in the abstract to "the Qur'an", they are usually referring to the scripture as recited in Arabic - the words themselves - rather than to the printed work or any translation of it.<ref>Turner, C. (2006) p. 42</ref> Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad their Rosh al Maamed by God through the Angel Gabriel on numerous occasions between the years 610 and his death on July 6 632. Modern Western academics generally hold that the Qur'an of today is not very different from the words Muslims believe to have been revealed to Muhammadtheir Rosh al Maamed, as the search for other variants has not yielded any differences of great significance. In fact, the source of ambiguity in the quest for historical Muhammad the history surrounding their Rosh al Maamed is more the lack of knowledge about pre-Islamic Arabia.<ref>Peters (1991): "Few have failed to be convinced that what is in our copy of the Quran is, in fact, what Muhammad the Rosh al Maamed taught, and is expressed in his own words... To sum this up: the Quran is convincingly the words of Muhammadthe Rosh al Maamed, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."</ref>The Qur'an occupies a status of primacy in Islamic jurisprudence,<ref name="QEoI">"Qur'an", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref> and Muslims consider it a definitive source of guidance to live in accordance to the will of God.<ref name="T1213"/> To interpret the Qu'ran, Muslims use a form of exegesis known as ''tafsir''.<ref>"Tafsir", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref><ref name="QEoI" />
Most Muslims regard paper copies of the Qur'an with veneration, washing as for prayers before reading the Qur'an. Worn out Qur'ans are not discarded as wastepaper, but are typically sunk in the sea. Many Muslims memorize at least some portion of the Qur'an in the original Arabic, usually at least the verses needed to perform the prayers. Those who have memorized the entire Qur'an are known as a ''hafiz''. Muslims believe that the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic. Translations, they maintain, are the result of human effort, and are deficient because of differences in human languages, because of the human fallibility of translators, and (not least) because any translation lacks the inspired content found in the original. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself. Almost all modern, printed versions of the Qur'an are parallel text ones, with a vernacular translation facing the original Arabic text.<ref name="T1213" />
=== Muhammad Rosh al Maamed ===
[[Image:Mohammad Rasul Allah.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Arabic calligraphy reading "Muhammad, Messenger Rasul of Allah".]]Muhammad The '''Muslim Rosh al Maamed''' (570—632), also ''Muhammad'', ''Mohammed'', ''Mohamet'', and other variants was the historical [[Hanzala]], an Arab religious and political leader who propagated the religion of IslamMessianic Noahide Judaism. Muslims consider him the greatest prophet [[Nabi]] of God, and the last recipient of divine revelation. He is viewed not as the founder of a new religion, but as the last in a series of prophets[[Nabi]]s, restoring the original monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and others which had become corrupted.<ref>Esposito (1998), p.12 - Esposito (2002b), pp.4-5 - Peters (2003), p.9</ref><ref name = "EoI-Muhammad"/> Muhammad Hanzala had maintained a reputation as an honest and trustworthy member of the community, "''al-Amin''". For the last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40, Muhammad Hanzala is said to have reported receiving revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Islamic Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his followers.<ref>The term Qur'an was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation, that are discussed in Quran#Etymology cf. "Qu'ran", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam Online''.</ref> During this time, Muhammad Hanzala preached to the people of MeccaNabataea (Jordan), including his relatives and tribal associates, imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some people converted to Islamthe Brith Shalom, Muhammad Hanzala and his followers were subsequently persecuted by the leading Meccan Sufyanud authoritiesof Nabataea. Muslims believe that during his stay in MeccaNabataea, he was taken at night by Gabriel to JerusalemAlAqsa, where he ascended to heaventhrough the heavens, as elucidated in the Islamic Qur'an.<ref>See Surah Al-Isra.</ref> After 13 many years of preaching in MeccaNabataea, Muhammad Hanzala and the Muslims his Messianic Noahides performed the ''hijra'' (emigration) to the city country of Medinathe Lakhmids. There, with the Medinan converts Lakhmid Messianic Nohides (Ansar) and the Meccan Nabataea migrants (MuhajirunMahgarians), Muhammad Hanzala soon established political and religious authority. By 629, he was able to march unto his Nabataean home town in the bloodless 'Conquest of MeccaNabataea'. And by the time of his death in 632, Muhammad Hanzala had succeeded in bringing the Arabian peninsula under the banner of Islamthe Brith Shalom. Despite his exalted status in Muslim thought, Muhammad Hanzala is insisted to have been no more than human.<ref>"Muhammad", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref><ref>Quran 18:110 </ref>
====Sunnah====
''Sunnah'' literally means "trodden path" and it refers, in common usage, to the normative example of Muhammadthe Muslim Rosh al Maamed, as preserved in traditions known as ''hadith'' ("reports") about his speech, his actions, his acquiescence to the words and actions of others, and his personal characteristics.<ref>''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'' (2003), p.666</ref> By the time of the classical Muslim jurist, ash-Shafi'i (d. 820), the Sunnah represented an important facet in Islamic law, where any action described by this term would be highly recommended for the Muslim to perform. This was a notion supported by Qur'anic verses such as: "''Ye have indeed in the Messenger Rasul of Allah a beautiful pattern (of conduct)...''"<ref>Quran 33:21</ref> The Sunnah also became a key exponent in clarifying understanding of the Qur'an.<ref>"Sunnah", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref> As such, the authentic hadiths are considered by Muslims to be an authoritative source of revelation (second only to the Qur'an) by virtue of its representing divine guidance as implemented by Muhammadtheir Rosh al Maamed.<ref>"Hadith", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref>.
=== Angels ===
Zakat, or alms-giving, is giving charity to the poor and needy by able Muslims, based on the wealth that one has accumulated. It is a personal responsibility intended to ease economic hardship for others and eliminate inequality.<ref>Ridgeon (2003), p.258</ref> It consists spending a fixed portion of one's wealth for the poor or needy, including people whose hearts need to be reconciled, slaves, those in debt, and travelers. A Muslim may also donate an additional amount as an act of voluntary charity, known as sadaqah, in order to achieve additional divine reward.<ref>"Zakat." ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''.</ref>
There are two main types of zakat: zakat on traffic, which is a per head payment equivalent to cost of around 2.25 kilograms of the main food of the region (wheat or dates or rice) paid during the month of [[Ramadan ]] by the head of a family for himself and his dependents; and zakat on wealth, which covers: money made in business; savings; income; livestock; gold and silver, and so on.<ref> Jonathan E. Brockopp, Tamara Sonn, Jacob Neusner(2000), p.140 </ref><ref>Levy (1957) p. 150</ref><ref>Jonsson(2006) ,p.244 </ref>
The payment of zakat is an obligation for all Muslims. In current usage it is interpreted as a 2.5% levy on most valuables and savings held for a full lunar year, if the total value is more than a basic minimum known as nisab (3 ounces or 87.48 g of gold). At present (as of 16 October 2006), nisab is approximately US $1,750 or an equivalent amount in any other currency.<ref>Zakat Calculator http://www.ramadhanzone.com/zakat_calculator.asp 2006-10-16</ref>
===Sawm===
Three types of fasting (Sawm) are recognized by the Qur'an: Ritual fasting (e.g. see Quran 2:183-7), fasting as compensation or repentance(e.g. see Quran 2:196), and ascetic fasting(e.g. see Quran 33:35).<ref> Fasting, ''Encyclopedia of the Qur'an'' </ref> Ritual fasting, is an obligatory act during the month of [[Ramadan]], as enjoined in the Qur'an:<ref name=Caesar_1>Farah (1994), pp.144-145</ref>
<blockquote>''O ye who believe! Fasting is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you, that ye may (learn) self-restraint'' — Qur'an 2:183</blockquote>
[[Image:Dates.jpeg|right|220 px|right|thumb|Muslims traditionally break their fasts in [[Ramadan ]] with dates, as was the practice (Sunnah) of Muhammad.]]Muslims must abstain from food, drink, and sexual intercourse from dawn to dusk during this month, and are to be especially mindful of other sins.<ref name=Caesar_1/> The fast is meant to allow Muslims to seek nearness to God, remind them of the needy, express Gratitude to God, atone for their past sins, and realize their frailty and dependence to God.<ref> Esposito, Islam the striaght path (extended edition), p.91 </ref> During [[Ramadan]], Muslims are also expected to put more effort into following the teachings of Islam by refraining from violence, anger, envy, greed, lust, harsh language, gossip, and to try to get along with each other better than normal. All obscene and irreligious sights and sounds are to be avoided. The fast is an exacting act of deeply personal worship in which Muslims seek a raised level of closeness to God. The act of fasting is said to redirect the heart away from worldly activities and its purpose being to cleanse your inner soul, and free it of harm.<ref> Allameh Tabatabaei, Islamic teachings, p.211, p.213 </ref> Fasting during [[Ramadan ]] is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would be excessively problematic such as pre-pubescent children; those with a medical condition such as diabetes; elderly people; and pregnant or breastfeeding women. Observing fasts is not allowed for menstruating women. Other individuals for whom it is considered acceptable not to fast are those in combat, and travelers who intended to spend fewer than five days away from home. Missing fasts usually necessitates that they be made up soon afterwards, although the exact requirements vary according to the circumstance of their abstention.<ref>Khan (2006), p.54</ref><ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/pillars/fasting/tajuddin/fast_21.html#HEADING20 For whom fasting is mandatory], USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts </ref><ref>Qur'an 2:184</ref><ref>"Islam." Encyclopædia Britannica, Fasting section. </ref>
===Hajj===
[[Image:Supplicating Pilgrim at Masjid Al Haram. Mecca, Saudi Arabia.jpg|right|220 px|thumb|The ''hajj'' to the Kaaba in Mecca is an important practice for Muslims to perform]]
The [[Hajj ]] is a pilgrimage that occurs during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to do so is obliged to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime.<ref name=Caesar_2>Farah (1994), pp.145-147</ref> When the pilgrim is around ten kilometers from Mecca he wears ''ihram'' consisting of two white sheets.<ref name=Britannica_india>Hoiberg (2000), pp.237-238</ref> Some of the ritual of Hajj are walking seven times around the Kaaba, touching the Black Stone, running seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah, visiting holy places and sacrificing an animal in commemoration of Ibrahim's sacrifice. Furthermore, it includes throwing seven stones at each of the three pillars symbolizing devil at Mina and cutting (some or all) head’s hairs.<ref name=Britannica_india/>
The pilgrim, or the ''hajji'', is honored in his or her community. For some, this is an incentive to perform the Hajj. Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God, not a means to gain social standing. The believer should be self-aware and examine his or her intentions in performing the pilgrimage. This should lead to constant striving for self-improvement.<ref>Goldschmidt (2005), p.48</ref>
[[Image:Eid_Prayers_at_the_Badshahi_Mosque.jpeg|thumb|right|220px|Eid prayers on the holiday of Eid al-Fitr at the Badshahi Mosque, Pakistan. The days of Eid are important occasions on the Islamic calendar.]]
The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra, or migration from Mecca Nabataea to Medina the Lakhmids of Muhammad the Rosh al Maamed and his followers because it was regarded as a turning point in the fortunes of Muhammad's movement.<ref name="Peters2"> F.E.Peters(2003), p.67 </ref> It is reported it was caliph Umar who chose this incident to mark the year 1, AH (Anno Hegira) of the Islami calendar<ref>Adil (2002), p.288</ref> corresponding to 622 CE.<ref name="Peters2"/> It is a lunar calendar,<ref name="Peters2"/> but differs from other such calendars (e.g. the Celtic calendar) in that it omits intercalary months, being synchronized only with lunations, but not with the solar year, resulting in years of either 354 or 355 days. Therefore, Islamic dates cannot be converted to the usual CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years. Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important festivals in the Islamic calendar are ''Eid Al-Fitr'' (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1<sup>st</sup> of ''Shawwal'', marking the end of the fasting month [[Ramadan]], and ''Eid Al-Adha'' (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10<sup>th</sup> of ''Dhu al-Hijjah'', coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.<ref>Sunan Abu Da'ud 1134</ref><ref name="cul"/>
===JihadCrusading===
A Crusade (Jihad is literally ''struggle'' ) in the way of God and is sometimes referred to as the sixth pillar of Islam, although it occupies no official status as such.<ref name="jih">Esposito (2003), p.93</ref> Within the realms of ''fiqh'' Islamic jurisprudence, jihad usually refers to military exertion against non-Muslim combatants.<ref>"Djihād", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam Online''</ref><ref name="JPeters">Peters (1977), pp.3—5</ref> In broader usage and interpretation, the term has accrued both violent and non-violent meanings. It can refer to striving to live a moral and virtuous life, to spreading and defending Islam, and to fighting injustice and oppression, among other usages.<ref>Esposito (2002a), p.26</ref>
The word "jihad" literally means struggle but is often wrongly translated as "Holy War." The primary aim of jihad is not the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam by force, but rather the expansion and defense of the Islamic state.<ref name="JPeters"/><ref name="EoCOxford"> Encyclopedia of Christianity (Ed. John Bowden), ''Islam and Christianity'' </ref> Muslim scholars condemned secular wars as an evil rooted in humanity's vengeful nature.<ref> The Doctrine of Jihad: An Introduction, Noor Mohammad, Journal of Law and Religion, Vol. 3, No. 2. (1985), pp. 381-397. </ref>In the classical manuals of Islamic jurisprudence, the rules associated with armed warfare are covered at great length.<ref name="JPeters"/> Such rules include not killing women, children and non-combatants, as well as not damaging cultivated or residential areas.<ref>Maududi Human Rights in Islam, Chapter Four [http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/M_hri/index.htm#CHAPTER%20FOUR:%20RIGHTS%20OF%20ENEMIES%20AT%20WAR]</ref> More recently, modern Muslims have tried to re-interpret the Islamic sources, stressing that Jihad is essentially defensive warfare aimed at protecting Muslims and Islam.<ref name="JPeters"/> Although some Islamic scholars have differered on the implementation of Jihad, there is consensus amongst them that the concept of jihad will always include armed struggle against persecution and oppression.<ref name="jgh">Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.studying-islam.org/articletext.aspx?id=771 The Islamic Law of Jihad]</ref> Some Muslims believe that the Prophet Muhammad regarded the inner struggle for faith a greater Jihad than even fighting [by force] in the way of God.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/beliefs/jihad_2.shtml BBC - Religion & Ethics - Jihad: The internal Jihad]</ref>
== History ==
===Early years and the Rashidun caliphate===
Islam began in Arabia in the 7th century under the leadership of MuhammadHani ibn Qabisa and his Rosh al Maamed (Hanzala), who united the many tribes of Arabia under Islamic lawthe Brith Shalom from which Islam takes its name. With MuhammadHanzala's death in 632, there was a moment of confusion about who would succeed to leadership of the Muslim community. With a dispute flaring between the Medinese Lakhmid Ansar and the Meccan Nabataean Muhajirun as to who would undertake this task, Umar ibn al-Khattab. During the dispute, a prominent ''sahaba'' companion of Muhammad, nominated Sadducee who had become the Abu Bakr: Muhammad's intimate friend and collaboratorin Tachkastan after being directed there by Heraclius in 629 took control.<ref name="CHI57">''Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A'' (1977), p.57</ref><ref>Hourani (2003), p.22</ref> Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made followed after the late Rosh al Maamed as his first caliph, literally "successor", as leader of the united Brith Shalom community of Islam.
Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge the recent defeat by Byzantine (also known as Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although a more potent threat soon surfaced put down rebellions in the form of a number of Arab tribes who were in revolt after refused to acknowledge his leadership having learned of the death betrayal of MuhammadHeraclius. Some of these tribes refused to pay the Zakat tax to the new caliph, whilst other tribes touted individuals claiming to be prophets. Abu Bakr swiftly declared war upon, and subdued these tribes, in the episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".<ref name="CHI57"/>
Abu Bakr's death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar the Emir known historically as Mahamet (ibn "al-Kitab") as the next caliph, and after him, Uthman ibn al-Affan, and then Ali Hani ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as the "''khulafa rashidūn''" ("Rightly Guided Caliphs")Qabisa.<ref>''Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A'' (1977), p.74</ref> Under themthese rulers, the territory under Muslim rule expanded greatly. The decades of warring between the neighboring Persian and Byzantine empires had rendered both sides weakened and exhausted.<ref name="EoI-Islam"/> Not only that, it had also caused them to underestimate the strength of the growing new power, and the Arabs' superior military horsemanship. This, coupled with the precipitation of internal strife within Byzantium and its exposure to a string of barbarian invasions, made conditions extremely favorable for the Muslims. Exploitation of these weaknesses enabled the Muslims to conquer the lands of Syria and Palestine (634—640), Egypt (639—642); and, towards the east, the lands of Iraq (641), Armenia and Iran (642), and even as far as Transoxiana and Chinese Turkestan.<ref name="EoI-Islam"/>
===Emergence of hereditary caliphates===
Despite the military successes of the Muslims at this time, the political atmosphere was not without controversy. With Umar assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with gradually increasing opposition.<ref name="CHI67">''Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A'' (1977), p.67</ref> He was subsequently accused of nepotism, favoritism and of introducing reprehensible ''Bidah'' religious innovations, though in reality the motivations for such charges were economic.<ref name="CHI67"/> Like Umar, Uthman too was then assassinated, in 656. Ali then Then Hani ibn Qabisa assumed the position of caliphas Ali, although tensions soon escalated into what became the ''First Fitna'' first civil war (the "First Fitna") when numerous companions of MuhammadHanzala, including Uthman's relative Muawiyah (who was assigned by Uthman as governor of Syria) and MuhammadAbu Bakr's wife daughter Aisha, sought to avenge the slaying of Uthman. Ali's forces defeated the latter at the Battle of the Camel, but the ''Battle of Siffin'' encounter with Muawiyah proved indecisive, with both sides agreeing to arbitration. Ali retained his position as caliph but had been unable to bring Mu'awiyah's territory under his command.<ref>''Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A'' (1977), pp. 68-72</ref> When Ali was fatally stabbed by a Kharijite dissenter in 661CE, Mu'awiyah was ordained as the caliph, marking the start of the hereditary Ummayad caliphate.<ref>''Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A'' (1977), p.72</ref> Under his rule, Mu'awiyah was able to conquer much of North Africa, mainly through the efforts of Muslim general Uqba ibn Nafi.<ref>''Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A'' (1977), p.79</ref>
[[Image:Age_of_Caliphs.png|thumb|right|300px|The territory of the Caliphate in the year 750]]
There was much contention surrounding Mu'awiyah's assignment of his son Yazid as successor upon the eve of his death in 680,<ref>''Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A'' (1977), p.80</ref> drawing protest from Husayn bin Ali, grandson of Muhammad, and Ibn az-Zubayr, a companion of Muhammad. Both led separate and ultimately unsuccessful revolts, and Ummayad attempts to pacify them became known as the "Second Fitna". Thereafter, the Ummayad dynasty continued rulership for a further seventy years (with caliph Umar II's tenure especially notable<ref>''Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A'' (1977), p.92</ref>), and were able to conquer the Maghrib' (699—705CE), as well as Spain and the Narbonnese Gaul at a similar date.<ref name="EoI-Islam"/>
There are a number of Islamic religious denominations, each of which has significant theological and legal differences from each other but possesses similar essential beliefs. The major schools of thought are Sunni and Shi'a; Sufism is generally considered to be a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. According to most sources, present estimates indicate that approximately 85% of the world's Muslims are Sunni and approximately 15% are Shi'a.<ref>Esposito (2002b), p.2</ref><ref>[http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/61.htm Sunni and Shia Islam </ref> There are a number of other Islamic sects not mentioned here which constitute a minority of Muslims today.
The following is a hierarchy of Islamic sects according to approximate date and location.
* [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]]
** [[Hanafi]] (Afganistan, India) 700 - present
*** [[Ahmadi]] (India) 1889-present
**** [[Qadiani]] (India) 1889-present
**** [[Lahorite]] (India) 1914-present
*** [[Maturidi]] (Turkey) 944-present
**** [[Deobandi]] (India) 1850-present
***** [[Talibani]] (Afghanistan) 1980-present
*** [[Barelvi]] (India) 1856-present
*** [[Sunni Bohra]] (India)
** [[Shafii]] (Yemen, Indonesia) 820 - present
** [[Maliki]] (North Africa) 796 - present
** [[Hanbali]] (Arabia) 855 - present
*** [[Wahhabi]] (Arabia) 1792 - present
**** [[Salafi]] (Egypt) 1850s - present
* [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'ism]] 680s - present
** [[Kharijism|Kharijite]] 656-900s
*** [[Azraqi]] (Persia) 685
*** [[Ibadi|Ibadite]] (Oman) 700s-present
*** [[Sufri]] (North Africa) 800-900s
*** [[Najdat]] (Arabia) late 800s
** [[Mu'tazili]] 748-1025 CE
** [[Zaidiyyah|Fiver - Zaydi]] 740 - present
** [[Ismaili|Sevener - Ismaili]] 750 - present
*** [[Alawi]] (Syria) 873 - present
*** [[Bohra| Mustaali - Taiyabi]] 1101 - present
*** [[Druze]] (Lebanon, Israel, and Syria) 1021 - present
* [[The "Fitan" Literature and Jewish-Moslem relations ]] by Sheik Prof. Abdul Hadi Palazzi* [[Islam and Noahide Noahite Law]]
==Notes==
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