Within [[Judaism]] it is a matter of debate whether all Christians should be considered Noahides.
While Christianity appears to conform to six of the seven Noahide laws, an informal comparison of the [[Nicene Creed#The Nicene Creed, A Noahide Review|Nicene Creed and Noahide Law]] reveals that the three major theological issues revolve around teachings may involve a possible violation of the Noahide prohibition against idolatry.
*Equating Jesus with G-d
*Equating the Holy Spirit with G-d
However, these theological issues do not fit the classical [[Noahide Law on Idolatry|Jewish definition of idolatry]]. This has caused disagreement among rabbinic authorities on the question of the permissibility of Christianity for non-Jews. (All authorities forbid Christianity for Jews).
Also Another consideration would be that even if Christians were are considered at least partially observant Noahides, another issue would be whether Christians are considered they [[Chasidei Umos HaOlam]] or [[Chochmei Umos HaOlam]]. ? The former are considered to have a share in the world to come because they recognize [[Noahide Law]] as being revealed through mosaic (rabbinic) tradition, the latter are not considered to have a share in the world to come because the they follow [[Noahide Law]] based on intellectual expediency.<ref>Maimonides in the Laws of Kings 8:11</ref>
In summary, classical idolatry has been clearly defined by Jewish Law. Christianity, however, has been defined as something less. The problem is defining how much less, and for what purposes.
A [[The Noahide Oath#Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah|recent ruling]] by the [[Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah]] has ruled that it will not allow people from a Christian background to take the [[The Noahide Pledge]] if they believe that Jesus was Messiah. However they state that this is based on procedural and not halachic considerations. They state that another court may accept the Noahide pledge from such a person and it may be completely valid.==Legal Opinions==
==The Talmud makes no clear reference to Jesus or Christianity as a Noahide Faith==.<ref>[http://www.angelfire.com/mt/talmud/jesus.html Historical Analysis: The Talmud neither disparaged nor even mentions Jesus]</ref> Various attempts to equate ''minim'' with early Christians are tenuous at best because there seems to be no relationship between the teachings of the ''minim'' and Christian teachings. Christianity is first discussed in detail in terms of Jewish law by the ''rishonim'' (Rabbis of the early medieval period (1250–1550))
===Forbidden===
The strict view, typified by [[Maimonides]], is that Christian theology is considered ''avodah zarah'' (loosely translated as "idolatry") for all people, both Jew and non-Jew, as it subscribes to the Trinity. Therefore most Christians could not be considered Noahides. However, Unitarian Christians and other followers of Jesus who do not believe that Jesus is a deity would still be considered Noahides.
Maimonides was clearly of the opinion that Christianity was idolatry. He is believed to have ruled in three places that Christianity is idolatry and forbidden to non-Jews::Know that this Christian nation''[[Ger Toshav]]'', one who advocates accepts upon himself the messianic claim in all their various sectsseven laws as we have explained -- his wine is forbidden to drink, but permitted to benefit from. He can be appointed over wine, but wine is not deposited by him. Such it is with all of them non-Jews that are idolaters. On all not idolators, such as the Muslims -- their various festivals it wine is forbidden for us to deal with them. And all Torah restrictions pertaining drink, but permitted to idolaters pertain to thembenefit from; This is also how we were instructed by the Gaonim. . . . We deal with them as we would deal with any idolaters on However the Christians -- since they are idolators, one is even prohibited from benefiting from their festivalwine.<ref>Commentary on MishnahMishneh Torah, Avodah Zarah 1.3Ma'achalos Asuros 11:7</ref>
And also
:Know that this Christian nation, who advocates the messianic claim in all their various sects, all of them are idolaters. On all their various festivals it is forbidden for us to deal with them. And all Torah restrictions pertaining to idolaters pertain to them... We deal with them as we would deal with any idolaters on their festival.<ref>Commentary on Mishnah, Avodah Zarah 1.3</ref>And also:Christians are idolaters and Sunday is their holy day. Accordingly it is forbidden to buy and sell with them on Thursday, Friday or every Saturday within the Land of Israel. Of course Sunday itself [is forbidden to buy and sell with them], which is forbidden in every location. This is also our custom for all their holidays.<ref>Mishneh Torah, Avodah Kochavim 9:4</ref>However this opinion is not followed today in Jewish law, as seen by the fact that Jews are not required to avoid Christians the day before and after their holy day, as would be required of full idolaters.
However Jewish Law disagrees with this opinion, as seen by the fact that Jews are not required to avoid Christians the days before and after Sunday or other holidays, as would be required of full idolaters. It is implied by Maimonides is believed to have ruled in three places that Christianity is idolatry his "Laws of Kings"::Even Jesus the Christian, who imagined himself as messiah, and forbidden also to nonwas executed by the court --Jewswas already prophesied about by Daniel "Those who are violent among your own people will rise up in confirmation of the vision, but they will falter." (Daniel 11: 14). There was a great stumbling in this. All the two quotes above prophets spoke of messiah as redeemer and Ma'achalos Asuros 11:7; saviour of the Jewish people, who will gather the exiles, and implies strengthen their laws. But this one has caused the destruction of Israel by the same in sword, the dispersal of the remnant, the exchange of the Torah for another, the misleading of most of the world to worship a fourth placegod other than the L-rd.<ref>Hilchos Melachim Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings and their Wars 11:4</ref> Most of these texts are missing from the the standard Vilna edition of these works, and are assumed to have been deleted by the censors. For whatever the reason, the code Code of Jewish Law does has not make made use of these supporting texts. In Moreh Nevuchim, Maimonides writes that Christianity has a mistaken understanding of G-d, similar to those who assign attributes to Him.<ref>Moreh Nevuchim (1:50)</ref> This might imply that Christianity is a min (deviant sect), which is perhaps a step up from idolatry. In his Epistles to Yemen, Maimonides implied that Christianity was idolatry, but he also says Christianity has a role to play in G-d's plan by "preparing the way for the Messiah's coming and the improvement of the entire world..."<ref>Mishneh Torah, Hilchos Melachim U'Milchamoteihem</ref>
===Permitted===
When a certain rabbi in Europe prohibited all contact with Christians on their holy days (which was more often than not when the great fairs were held) Rabbenu Gershom objects, "But in [the Land of] Israel it is already customary to barter with non-Jews on their holy days, and we should not forbid this. It is better that [the Jews] contravene the law in ignorance than that they should do so knowingly, [which they will inevitably do] since their livelihood depends on their wares and most days of the year are [Christian] holy days."
The position of the Tosafists is complex. It is generally held that the Tosafists, particularly the Ri and possibly also Rabbeinu Tam, considered Christian belief to be "the partnering of the Name of Heaven with something else", and that as Noachides (i.e. non-Jews) are not forbidden to engage in such partnering; Christian belief and worship is permitted for non-Jews, and it is permitted for Jews to cause them to actively express that belief or engage in such worship. However, this judgement is not followed through in other areas. It seems from the words of Tosafot to Bechorot 2a and Sanhedrin 63b that their comments are limited to the case of oathtaking, i.e. partnering the Name of Heaven with something else while taking an oath. The halachic context would not be the prohibitions against idolatrous worship but rather the prohibition "Let them not be heard as a result of you", which would be understood as "let them not be heard as the exclusive guarantors of an oath as a result of you. Several great acharonim, including Shaar Efraim, Noda B'Yehudah, Meil Tzedakah, Olat Tamid, and Chazon Ish, understood Tosafot in this fashion. Some of them also interpreted Ramo, who cites Tosafot, the same way. But there are also those, including Shach and Seder Mishnah, who read Tosafot broadly, as referring to all prohibitions associated with Christian faith. But according to either reading of Tosafot, Jews holding Christian beliefs are violating ''avodah zarah '' prohibitions. Even Meiri, who assigns Noachides "bound by the ways of religion" (which presumptively includes Christians) a status equivalent to Jews for several legal purposes, probably believes that they are nonetheless worshipers of ''avodah zarah''
In general Jewish law follows Tosafos and rules that Christian theology is only considered ''avodah zarah'' for Jews, but it is permissible for gentiles. The Tosafist [[Rabbeinu Tam|Rabbi Jacob Tam]] ([[Rashi]]'s grandson) ruled that trinitarianism could be permitted to gentiles as a form of ''shittuf'' ("association").<ref>Bekhorot 2b and Sanhedrin 63b</ref> This view was echoed by Rabbi Isaac ben Sheshet (''Rivash'', responsa 119) and accepted by Rabbi Moses Isserles (''Rema'').<ref>Orah Hayyim 156:1</ref> However, no Jewish source allows the worship through any form of ''shittuf''; rather, all worship must be directed to the one and only Creator. In this view Christian theology is not forbidden to gentiles, and all Christians are Noahides.
===Other factors===
Even if one concludes that Christianity is Avodah Zarah ''avodah zarah'' for non-Jews, it is not clear that most non-Jews are deeply attached to their ''avodah zarah '' beliefs, and further more there are Christian groups whose beliefs differ greatly in areas touching the halachic definition of Avodah Zarah''avodah zarah''. See the contemporary Rabbi Henkin's citation in Bnei Banim 35 of Rabbeinu Yerucham's (1290-1350) description of the non-Jews of his time as "not deeply attached to Avodah Zarah''avodah zarah''", and the Rabbi Eliezer ben Natan (''Ra'avan'' of Mainz) (1090-1170) spoke about this as well, and Rabbi Henkin sees in him grounds for distinguishing among the various churches. It has been noted that in the Maimonides' day and Islamic environment, it was just as dangerous to say that Christianity was not idolatry as it was for in Tosefos day to say that it was. ===Historical Reconstruction=== Attempts to reconstruct Rabbinic opinion of the early Christians based on New Testament, Josephus and other nearly contemporary writing is problematic, and has never been fully attempted, but may yet yield fruitful results. Josephus generally portrays the Sadducees as antagonistic to early Christianity<ref>Ant. 20:9, etc</ref>, while the New Testament portrays Pharisees as being tolerant.<ref>John 3:2, Acts 5:34, etc</ref> Neither Jesus, nor the early Christians were accused of idolatry. Instead they were apparently executed on the basis of blasphemy<ref>Mathew 26:65, Mark 14:64 and John 10:33</ref>, or given corporal punishment based on disobedience to the directives of a court<ref>2 Corinthians 11:24.</ref>
It has been noted that in the Maimonides' day and Islamic environment, it was just as dangerous to say that ==Other Rabbinic Views of Christianity was not idolatry as it was for the Tosefos to say that it was.==
==Christianity as =Rabbi Menahem Ha-Meiri (d. 1315)===Rabbi Menahem Ha-Meiri, the fourteenth century Provencal scholar, introduced a Religion new perspective in Transition==framing relations between Jews and the wider Christian or Islamic societies in which they lived:
In his Epistles :It has already been stated that these things [laws relating to Yemengentiles] were said concerning periods when there existed nations of idolaters, Maimonides implied that Christianity was idolatryand they were contaminated in their deeds and tainted in their dispositions . . . but other nations, but he also says Christianity has a role to play in G-d's plan which are restrained by "preparing the way for the Messiah's coming ways of religion and the improvement which are free from such blemishes of character - on the entire worldcontrary, they even punish such deeds - are, without doubt, exempt from this prohibition..."<ref>Mishneh TorahMeiri, Bet Habechirah, Avodah Zarah, 53. See also, ibid., 39, Hilchos Melachim U'Milchamoteihem</ref> However46, he writes that Christianity has a mistaken understanding of G-d48, similar to those who assign attributes to Him59 and in many other places in his writings.<ref>Moreh Nevuchim (1:50)</ref> This would imply that Christianity is a min (deviant sect), which is perhaps a step up from idolatry.
Rabbi Yaakov Emden (1697According to Meiri, all mishnaic rules circumscribing business and other transactions with non-1776) wrote: Jews are to be understood as referring to pagan or polytheistic cultures, no longer extant, which in addition to being idolatrous were also unprincipled in their dealings with people. That has now changed. The nations amongst whom Jews lived were now "restrained by the ways of religion"We should consider Christians and Moslems were therefore to be regarded as instruments for on a par with the fulfillment ''[[Ger Toshav]]'' of the prophecy that the knowledge of God will one day spread throughout the earthbiblical times, namely as ''[[Chasidei Umos HaOlam]]''. Whereas the nations before them worshipped idols, denied God<ref>Much has been written about Meiri's existenceconceptual leap in relation to non-Jews: see Jacob Katz, Exclusiveness and thus did not recognize God's power or retributionTolerance, New York, Behrman House, the rise of Christianity and Islam served to spread among the nations1961, to the furthest ends of the earth114-128; Ephraim Urbach, the knowledge that there is One God who rules the world"Shitat Hasovlanut shel Rabbi Menahem Hameiri, who rewards and punishes and reveals Himself to man" in E. IndeedEtkes (ed), Perakim beToldot haHevrah haYehudit, Jerusalem, 1980, Christian scholars have not only won acceptance among the nations for the revelation of the Written Torah but have also defended God's Oral Law34-44; M. For whenHalbertal, in their hostility to the Bein TorahleChokhmah, Jerusalem, ruthless persons in their own midst sought to abrogate and uproot the TalmudMagnes Press, 2000, others from among them arose to defend it and to repulse the attempts80-108."<ref>Commentary to Pirkey Avot, 4:13</ref>
Rabbi Moses Rivkes gives halakhic expression to the difference between pagan and monotheistic gentile cultures:
:The rabbis of the Talmud meant by the term 'idolators' the pagans who lived in their time, who worshipped the stars and the constellations and did not believe in the Exodus from Egypt and in the creation of the world out of nothing. But the nations under whose benevolent shadow we, the Jewish nation, are exiled and are dispersed among them, they do believe in the creation of the world out of nothing and the Exodus from Egypt and in the essentials of faith, and their whole intention is toward the Maker of heaven and earth, as other authorities have said . . . these nations do believe in all of this<ref>R. Moses Rivkes (Lithuania, 17th century), Be'er haGolah to Choshen Mishpat 425:5).</ref>
===Rabbi Jonathan Eybeschutz (1690-1764)===
So does the introduction to Rabbi Jonathan Eybeschutz's halakhic commentary, ''Kreti uPleti'':
:The Christian nations among whom we live, generally observe the principles of justice and righteousness, believe in the creation of the world and the existence and providence of G-d, and in the Law of Moses and the prophets, and oppose the Sadducean view that denies the resurrection of the dead and the immortality of the soul. Therefore it is fitting to be thankful to them, to praise and extol them, and to bring upon them blessings and not, G-d forbid, curses.<ref>Introduction to Rabbi Jonathan Eybeschuetz, Kreti uPleti, s.v. ein.</ref>
===Rabbi Yaakov Emden (1697-1776)===
Rabbi Yaakov Emden wrote:
:"We should consider Christians and Moslems as instruments for the fulfillment of the prophecy that the knowledge of G-d will one day spread throughout the earth. Whereas the nations before them worshipped idols, denied G-d's existence, and thus did not recognize G-d's power or retribution, the rise of Christianity and Islam served to spread among the nations, to the furthest ends of the earth, the knowledge that there is One G-d who rules the world, who rewards and punishes and reveals Himself to man. Indeed, Christian scholars have not only won acceptance among the nations for the revelation of the Written Torah but have also defended G-d's Oral Law. For when, in their hostility to the Torah, ruthless persons in their own midst sought to abrogate and uproot the Talmud, others from among them arose to defend it and to repulse the attempts."<ref>Commentary to Pirkey Avot, 4:13</ref>
In perhaps the most significant analysis of Christianity, Rabbi Emden says:
:The writers of the Gospels never meant to say that the Nazarene came to abolish Judaism, but only that he came to establish a new religion for the Gentiles from that time onward. Nor was it new, but actually ancient; they being the Seven commandments of the sons of Noah, which were forgotten. The Apostles of the Nazarene established them anew . . . It is therefore a habitual saying of mine . . . that the Nazarene brought about a double kindness in the world. On the one hand, he strengthened the Torah of Moses majestically, as mentioned earlier, and not one of our sages spoke out more emphatically concerning the immutability of the Torah. And on the other hand he did much good for the gentiles . . . by doing away with idolatry and removing the images from their midst. He obligated them with the seven commandments . . . and also bestowed on them ethical ways, and in this respect he was much more stringent with them than the Torah of Moses, as is well known.<ref>Rabbi Yaakov Emden, [[Yaakov_Emden_on_Noahides#Rabbi_Jacob_Emden.27s_Letter_.28Seder_Olam_Rabbah_Vezuta.29|Seder Olam Rabbah ve-Zuta]], Appendix. Translation, H. Falk, Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 19:1 [Winter 1982], 105-111).</ref>
Citing Acts 15, Emden argues that the founders of Christianity were not engaged in creating a new religion but rather bringing the Noahide covenant and its seven laws to the gentiles. That is why they did not require their followers to observe the Sabbath or the command of circumcision (which do not apply to non-Jews). Only later did Christians (mistakenly, Emden argues) see their faith as a rival to and [[Replacement theology|replacement]] of Judaism. Emden urges Christians to go back to their own first principles. If they did so they would "bring their people to love the ancient Children of Israel who remain loyal to their G-d, as indeed commanded to Christians by their original teachers."
===Rabbi Israel Lipschutz (1782-1860)===
Rabbi Israel Lipschutz suggested that there are broad parameters of religious belief which lead to ethical conduct and are universal among civilized societies. He called such belief "torah" in an extended sense:
:R. Elazar ben Azaryah said, "If there is no Torah there is no culture [derekh eretz]" - The word "Torah" here cannot be meant literally, since there are many ignorant people who have not learned it, and many pious among the gentiles who do not keep the Torah and yet are ethical and people of culture. Rather, the correct interpretation seems to me to be that every people has its own religion [dat Eloki] which comprises three foundational principles, [a] belief in a revealed Torah, [b] belief in [Divine] reward and punishment, and [c] belief in an afterlife (they disagree merely on the interpretation of these principles). These three principles are what are called here "Torah".<ref>Tiferet Yisrael to Avot 3:17.</ref>
===Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes (1852-1937)===
Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes said that:
:There is a midrash that, when Adam and Eve were turned out of Eden or earthy paradise, an angel smashed the gates, and the fragments flying all over the earth are the precious stones. We can carry the midrash further. The precious stones were picked up by the various religions and philosophers of the world. Each claimed and claims that its own fragment alone reflects the light of heaven, forgetting the setting and incrustations which time has added. Patience my brother. In G-d's own time we shall, all of us, fit our fragments together and reconstruct the gates of paradise. There will be an era of reconciliation of all living faiths and systems, the era of all being in at-one-ment, or atonement, with G-d. Through the gates shall all people pass to the foot of G-d's throne.<ref>Orthodox or Historical Judaism" (Chicago 1894), 217-8</ref>
===Rabbi Zevi Yehudah Kook (1891-1982)===
Rabbi Zevi Yehudah Kook was a rabbi, leader of the Religious Zionist, Mizrachi movement in Israel, on the other hand resurrects many of the classic anti-Christian polemics with a vigor not seen for centuries. Among them: Christianity should be dismissed as an internal Jewish heresy; G-d the creator clearly cannot be a man; the Jewish G-d is alive whereas the Christian’s is dead. Christianity is the refuse of Israel, in line with the purported ancient Talmudic portrayals of Jesus as boiling in excrement.<ref>Zevi Yehudah Kook, Judaism and Christianity [Hebrew] (Beit El: 2001).</ref>
===Harvey Falk===
Harvey Falk, who is a contemporary orthodox Jew, in his book ''Jesus the Pharisee'' proposes that the spread of the Noahide laws may have been an important part of Jesus' intentions, as well as those of his early followers (see also [[Council of Jerusalem]]).
===Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah (2007)===
[[Image:BDBN.gif|right]]
A [[The Noahide Oath#Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah|recent ruling]] by the [[Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah]] has ruled that it will not allow people from a Christian background to take the [[The Noahide Pledge]] if they believe that Jesus was Messiah. However they state that this is based on procedural and not halachic considerations. They state that another court may accept the Noahide pledge from such a person and it may be completely valid.
==Christian Views of Noahides==
===Christian opposition===
[[Christian]] critics of the Noahide laws contend that insisting upon a basic set of moral laws is contrary to [[religious pluralism]]. Some believe that their existence implies that [[Jew]]s may set up a legal system that would effectively outlaw Christianity. The Jewish community responds by noting that it makes laws and customs for its own members (like all faiths) and does not set up governments to force [[Judaism|Jewish]] beliefs on non-Jews; in contrast, some non-Jewish faiths have carried out such actions in practice. In addition, with their minimal threshold of morality, the Noahide law may be compared to Catholic social teachings, especially natural law theory.
The major Christian bodies (e.g. the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Protestant Churches) believe the Ten Commandments to be binding on them and would regard the Noahide laws as essentially a subset of these (though the requirement to set up courts, and the dietary regulation, are not explicit in the Ten Commandments). By contrast, most Jewish thinkers consider Some critics of the Seven Noahide Laws laws contend that insisting upon a basic set of moral laws is contrary to [[religious pluralism]]. Some Christians believe that their existence implies that Jews may set up a parallel legal system that would effectively outlaw Christianity. Based on the out-of general categories of commandments-context claims that the "all Christians are idolators", each containing many components and details. Some Jewish thinkers regard "punishment for idolatry is the determination of death penalty", and that "the details Rabbis have absolute control and authority over Noahides", some Christian groups has generated a lot of noise against the Noahide community. The Jewish community responds by noting that: * Noahide Law as something to , with its minimal threshold of morality, law may be left compared to Jewish Catholic social teachings, especially [[rabbinatural law]]stheory. This * Judaism makes laws and customs for its own members (like all faiths) and does not set up governments to force Jewish beliefs on non-Jews; in contrast, some non-Jewish faiths have carried out such actions in addition practice. * This is not the ruling according to the teaching Code of the Jewish law that punishment for violating one of . If Christian were idolators - in the full sense - it would be forbidden to do business with them on the seven Noahide Laws includes a theoretical death penalty (Talmuddays before and after Sunday as well as any Christian holidays, tractate Sanhedrin 57a)as well as several other legal rulings would come into effect. This is not the case, however. Jewish Law holds that Christian is a factor in modern opposition similar to the notion of a Noahide legal systemidolatry, but not full idolatry, and may even be completely permitted for non-Jews. * Jewish scholars respond also by noting note that Jews today no longer carry out the death penalty, even within the Jewish community. Jewish law, in contemporary practice, sees the [[death penalty]] as an indicator of the seriousness of an offense; violators are not actually put to death. Some Most Jewish thinkers authorities believe that penalties are a detail of the Noahide Laws and that Noahides themselves must determine the details of their own laws for themselves. According to this school of thought - see N. Rakover, ''Law and the Noahides'' (1998); M. Dallen, ''The Rainbow Covenant'' (2003)- the Noahide Laws offer mankind a set of absolute values and a framework for righteousness and justice, while the detailed laws that are currently on the books of the world's states and nations are presumptively valid. * Lastly, the Rabbis have no control over Noahides, only the ability to interpret the Bible and give rulings in Jewish law. Even in theory, the Rabbis cannot enforce their decisions on non-Jews anywhere outside of the Land of Israel.
===Christian support===
[[Image:Noahide Christian.png|right]]
Several Christian congregations have abandoned traditional Christianity (rejecting the [[Nicene Creed]]) and adopted the First Covenant or Noahism in recent years. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} In the United States a few organized movements of non-Jews (primarily of Christian origin) have either chosen to reject mainstream religious affiliation and live by the [[Apostolic Decree]], which they view as the original Christian observance of Noahide Laws, or, under the influence of Orthodox Judaism, adhere to the Talmud's listing of the Laws (without converting to Judaism).
==See also==
* [[Noahide Law in the New Testament]]
* [[Tosofos and Christianity]]
* [[The Halakhic Status of the Doctrine of the Trinity]]
* [[Primitive Apostolic Christianity]]
* [[Nicene Creed]] (rejected by the Noahide laws)
==References==
<references />
==Bibliography==
* [http://www.chiefrabbi.org/dd/views.html Rabbi Jonathan Sacks, Judaic Views of Christianity and Islam] (Chief Rabbi of the United Kingdom)
* [http://www.bc.edu/research/cjl/meta-elements/texts/cjrelations/resources/articles/Brill.htm Rabbi Dr. Alan Brill, Judaism and Other Religions: An Orthodox perspective]
* Jacob Katz, Exclusiveness and Tolerance, New York, Behrman House, 1961, 114-128
* Ephraim Urbach, "Shitat Hasovlanut shel Rabbi Menahem Hameiri," in E. Etkes (ed), Perakim beToldot haHevrah haYehudit, Jerusalem, 1980, 34-44
* Alon Goshen-Gottstein, "Jewish-Christian Relations: From Historical Past to Theological Future" Ecumenism No. 146 (2002).
* Elisheva Barre, Torah for Gentiles, 2008
[[Category:Christian Religion]]
[[Category:Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah]]
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