http://www.wikinoah.org/en/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=HaNoahide&feedformat=atomWikinoah English - User contributions [en]2024-03-19T02:30:46ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.27.1http://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=User_talk:Haim&diff=16717User talk:Haim2013-06-11T13:46:03Z<p>HaNoahide: Created page with 'Welcome to Wikinoah! --~~~~<br> [mailto:webmaster@wikinoah.org webmaster@wikinoah.org]'</p>
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<div>Welcome to Wikinoah! --[[User:HaNoahide|HaNoahide]] 13:46, 11 June 2013 (UTC)<br><br />
[mailto:webmaster@wikinoah.org webmaster@wikinoah.org]</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=User_talk:JewishLanguageInstitute&diff=16716User talk:JewishLanguageInstitute2013-06-11T13:45:57Z<p>HaNoahide: Created page with 'Welcome to Wikinoah! --~~~~<br> [mailto:webmaster@wikinoah.org webmaster@wikinoah.org]'</p>
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<div>Welcome to Wikinoah! --[[User:HaNoahide|HaNoahide]] 13:45, 11 June 2013 (UTC)<br><br />
[mailto:webmaster@wikinoah.org webmaster@wikinoah.org]</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=User_talk:Ssumiakter&diff=16715User talk:Ssumiakter2013-06-11T13:45:50Z<p>HaNoahide: Created page with 'Welcome to Wikinoah! --~~~~<br> [mailto:webmaster@wikinoah.org webmaster@wikinoah.org]'</p>
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<div>Welcome to Wikinoah! --[[User:HaNoahide|HaNoahide]] 13:45, 11 June 2013 (UTC)<br><br />
[mailto:webmaster@wikinoah.org webmaster@wikinoah.org]</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=User_talk:Todgar&diff=16714User talk:Todgar2013-06-11T13:45:43Z<p>HaNoahide: Created page with 'Welcome to Wikinoah! --~~~~<br> [mailto:webmaster@wikinoah.org webmaster@wikinoah.org]'</p>
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<div>Welcome to Wikinoah! --[[User:HaNoahide|HaNoahide]] 13:45, 11 June 2013 (UTC)<br><br />
[mailto:webmaster@wikinoah.org webmaster@wikinoah.org]</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=User:GertBySea&diff=16713User:GertBySea2013-06-11T13:45:09Z<p>HaNoahide: Created page with ''''Welcome!''' Hello, {{PAGENAME}}, and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Welcome%2C_newcomers welcome] to Wikinoah! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like …'</p>
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<div>'''Welcome!'''<br />
<br />
Hello, {{PAGENAME}}, and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Welcome%2C_newcomers welcome] to [[Wikinoah]]! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers:<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Introduction Introduction to Wikinoah]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:How_to_edit_a_page How to edit a page]<br />
*[[Approved by Wikinoah|Getting approval]]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Contents Wikipedia help Help pages]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Tutorial Tutorial]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:How_to_write_a_great_article How to write a great article]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style Manual of Style]<br />
I hope you enjoy editing here and being a [[Wikinoah:Wikinoahide|Wikinoahide]]! Please [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sign_your_posts_on_talk_pages sign your name] on talk pages using four tildes (~&#126;~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Where_to_ask_a_question Where to ask a question], ask me on my talk page, or place <code>{&#123;helpme}}</code> on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome!&nbsp; --[[User:HaNoahide|HaNoahide]] 13:45, 11 June 2013 (UTC)<br><br />
[mailto:webmaster@wikinoah.org webmaster@wikinoah.org]</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=User:Haim&diff=16712User:Haim2013-06-11T13:45:07Z<p>HaNoahide: Created page with ''''Welcome!''' Hello, {{PAGENAME}}, and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Welcome%2C_newcomers welcome] to Wikinoah! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like …'</p>
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<div>'''Welcome!'''<br />
<br />
Hello, {{PAGENAME}}, and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Welcome%2C_newcomers welcome] to [[Wikinoah]]! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers:<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Introduction Introduction to Wikinoah]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:How_to_edit_a_page How to edit a page]<br />
*[[Approved by Wikinoah|Getting approval]]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Contents Wikipedia help Help pages]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Tutorial Tutorial]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:How_to_write_a_great_article How to write a great article]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style Manual of Style]<br />
I hope you enjoy editing here and being a [[Wikinoah:Wikinoahide|Wikinoahide]]! Please [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sign_your_posts_on_talk_pages sign your name] on talk pages using four tildes (~&#126;~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Where_to_ask_a_question Where to ask a question], ask me on my talk page, or place <code>{&#123;helpme}}</code> on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome!&nbsp; --[[User:HaNoahide|HaNoahide]] 13:45, 11 June 2013 (UTC)<br><br />
[mailto:webmaster@wikinoah.org webmaster@wikinoah.org]</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=User:JewishLanguageInstitute&diff=16711User:JewishLanguageInstitute2013-06-11T13:45:00Z<p>HaNoahide: Created page with ''''Welcome!''' Hello, {{PAGENAME}}, and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Welcome%2C_newcomers welcome] to Wikinoah! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like …'</p>
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<div>'''Welcome!'''<br />
<br />
Hello, {{PAGENAME}}, and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Welcome%2C_newcomers welcome] to [[Wikinoah]]! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers:<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Introduction Introduction to Wikinoah]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:How_to_edit_a_page How to edit a page]<br />
*[[Approved by Wikinoah|Getting approval]]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Contents Wikipedia help Help pages]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Tutorial Tutorial]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:How_to_write_a_great_article How to write a great article]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style Manual of Style]<br />
I hope you enjoy editing here and being a [[Wikinoah:Wikinoahide|Wikinoahide]]! Please [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sign_your_posts_on_talk_pages sign your name] on talk pages using four tildes (~&#126;~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Where_to_ask_a_question Where to ask a question], ask me on my talk page, or place <code>{&#123;helpme}}</code> on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome!&nbsp; --[[User:HaNoahide|HaNoahide]] 13:45, 11 June 2013 (UTC)<br><br />
[mailto:webmaster@wikinoah.org webmaster@wikinoah.org]</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=User:Ssumiakter&diff=16710User:Ssumiakter2013-06-11T13:44:58Z<p>HaNoahide: Created page with ''''Welcome!''' Hello, {{PAGENAME}}, and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Welcome%2C_newcomers welcome] to Wikinoah! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like …'</p>
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<div>'''Welcome!'''<br />
<br />
Hello, {{PAGENAME}}, and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Welcome%2C_newcomers welcome] to [[Wikinoah]]! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers:<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Introduction Introduction to Wikinoah]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:How_to_edit_a_page How to edit a page]<br />
*[[Approved by Wikinoah|Getting approval]]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Contents Wikipedia help Help pages]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Tutorial Tutorial]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:How_to_write_a_great_article How to write a great article]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style Manual of Style]<br />
I hope you enjoy editing here and being a [[Wikinoah:Wikinoahide|Wikinoahide]]! Please [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sign_your_posts_on_talk_pages sign your name] on talk pages using four tildes (~&#126;~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Where_to_ask_a_question Where to ask a question], ask me on my talk page, or place <code>{&#123;helpme}}</code> on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome!&nbsp; --[[User:HaNoahide|HaNoahide]] 13:44, 11 June 2013 (UTC)<br><br />
[mailto:webmaster@wikinoah.org webmaster@wikinoah.org]</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=User:Todgar&diff=16709User:Todgar2013-06-11T13:44:52Z<p>HaNoahide: Created page with ''''Welcome!''' Hello, {{PAGENAME}}, and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Welcome%2C_newcomers welcome] to Wikinoah! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like …'</p>
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<div>'''Welcome!'''<br />
<br />
Hello, {{PAGENAME}}, and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Welcome%2C_newcomers welcome] to [[Wikinoah]]! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers:<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Introduction Introduction to Wikinoah]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:How_to_edit_a_page How to edit a page]<br />
*[[Approved by Wikinoah|Getting approval]]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Contents Wikipedia help Help pages]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Tutorial Tutorial]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:How_to_write_a_great_article How to write a great article]<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style Manual of Style]<br />
I hope you enjoy editing here and being a [[Wikinoah:Wikinoahide|Wikinoahide]]! Please [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sign_your_posts_on_talk_pages sign your name] on talk pages using four tildes (~&#126;~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Where_to_ask_a_question Where to ask a question], ask me on my talk page, or place <code>{&#123;helpme}}</code> on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome!&nbsp; --[[User:HaNoahide|HaNoahide]] 13:44, 11 June 2013 (UTC)<br><br />
[mailto:webmaster@wikinoah.org webmaster@wikinoah.org]</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=Beginning_Hebrew_Reading_for_Bnai_Noach&diff=16344Beginning Hebrew Reading for Bnai Noach2013-02-14T10:29:47Z<p>HaNoahide: Created page with '==The Jewish Language Institute's How Hebrew Works== Want to learn how to read and comprehend Hebrew? Frustrated with your learning options?<br> Can't find a competent and reli…'</p>
<hr />
<div>==The Jewish Language Institute's How Hebrew Works==<br />
<br />
Want to learn how to read and comprehend Hebrew? <br />
Frustrated with your learning options?<br><br />
Can't find a competent and reliable teacher?<br><br />
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Through Internet technology, we'll speak, read, discuss, study examples, review, write, practice, and even take short quizzes to solidify your Hebrew learning.<br />
<br />
With us, feedback is immediate. And learning is focused on you, so you'll progress in reading, speaking, and writing Hebrew efficiently with no wasted efforts.<br />
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==To learn with us online, you'll need:==<br />
* A computer with a broadband Internet connection;<br />
* A microphone and speakers (we offer excellent choices in our online store);<br />
* Skype, the free Internet telephony software available at www.skype.com;<br />
* A Web browser such as Mozilla Firefox; and<br />
* A PayPal, eCheck, Visa, MasterCard, American Express, or Discover account to pay for your HowHebrewWorks.com session on our payment page.<br />
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[http://www.HowHebrewWorks.com HowHebrewWorks.com:] Course "[[Beginning Hebrew Reading for Bnai Noach]]"</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=Websites&diff=16343Websites2013-02-14T10:26:32Z<p>HaNoahide: /* Resources & Research */</p>
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<div>This is a hopefully comprehensive list of all noahide website on the internet. Please add any that are missing. Eventually these sites should be broken into categories and each of these links should be made into Wikinoah pages that review the websites. See also [[Maillists & Forums]]<br />
<br />
==General Approach==<br />
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* [http://www.webring.com/hub?ring=noachring Webring.com] B'nei Noach Ring for Promotion of the 7 Universal Laws<br />
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===Websites (listed A-Z)===<br />
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* [http://www.1stcovenant.org 1stCovenant.org & RainbowCovenant.org: The First Covenant Foundation] Michael Dallen, a longtime writer and attorney, Jack E. Saunders, who began his professional career as a Baptist pastor, and Rabbi Michael Katz provide a wide variety of information on the Noahide Covenant, which they also call the Rainbow Covenant or Universal Covenant. Michael Dallen's book can be found [http://rainbowcovenant.org/pages/thebook.htm here]<br />
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* [http://www.7commands.com 7commands.com: World Outreach] by Dr. Akiva Gamliel Belk, Discussions from the Universe's Original Belief System.<br />
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* [http://www.7for70.com 7for70.com: Seven Noahide Laws: The Seventh Era]<br />
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* [http://www.7lawsforhumanity.org 7 Laws for Humanity] is a non-profit association run by Meyer Tangi in Paris which aims at supporting the diffusion and the transmission of the values related to Judaism and the culture in general. <br />
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* [http://http://www.7loispourlhumanite.org 7 Lois Pour Humanite]L’association dénommée Institut de Recherche Francophone d’Histoire Juive éditrice du site 7loispourlhumanite.org - est une association à but non lucratif qui a pour objectifs de soutenir la diffusion et la transmission des valeurs relatives au Judaïsme et de la culture en général. Meyer Tangi de Paris.<br />
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* [http://www.aish.com/jw/s/80405497.html Aish HaTorah's Noahide Section]<br />
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* [http://www.7for70.net Belarus Noahides]<br />
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* [http://www.benenoach.info BeneNoach.info Italian Bnai Noach Site] See the [[Sito Noachide (Italian Website)|review on this site]].<br />
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* [http://www.beni-noah.com/ Beni-noah.com: Website of Rabbi Yoel Shwartz] vice-chairman of the Sanhedrin & head of the Court for Bnei Noach.<br />
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* [http://www.bnainoach.com BnaiNoach.com: B'nai No'ach Friends and Social network]<br />
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* [http://www.geocities.com/~alyza/noachide/n-posts.htm Bnai-Noach: The Seven Laws of Noach (Geocities)]<br />
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* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/6235/ Bnai Noach Educational Development Group Webpage] the seven laws of the sons of noah bnai noach are the moral expectations of humanity supported by prayer celebration song and fellowship. By Pinchas Richard Wimberly<br />
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* [http://www.auburn.edu/~allenkc/7laws.html The Seven Laws of Noah and Related Concepts] A collection of articles on the Noahide movement.<br />
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* [http://www.bnai-noach-of-tacoma.org B'nai Noach of Tacoma] located in South Tacoma in Washington State. We meet every Sabbath and on the Biblical Holy Days.<br />
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* [http://www.bnainoachnews.com BnaiNoachNews.com: News & Information] This website presents a public news, information and forums to link communities belonging to the Noahide Movement around the world. Billy Jack also hosts the [http://wikinoah.org/ Noachide Wikipedia], the online encyclopedia of the Noahide movement, as well as a [http://www.bnainoach.com/ Bnai Noach friends social site] and the [http://www.unitednoachidecouncil.com/ United Noachide Council]. <br />
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* [http://www.bnainoah.net BnaiNoah.net & BneiNoah.net: Agudat B'nai Noach]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.bnainoah.org BnaiNoah.org] Information on the Noahide laws in a well-presented and thorough manner, especially the more involved aspects of their practice and interface with Judaism, and also to be a general resource to Noahides and other interested parties. Hashkafically aligned with centrist modern Orthodoxy in the Jewish world, especially with grand tradition of the Rav, Rabbi Joseph B. Solovetichik ז''ל.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.bnti.us BNTI.us: B’nai Noach Torah Institute] Where we offer courses in Judaism, Spirituality {7 Noaich Commands}, Noahide, Torah, Returning to Judaism, Discussions on Conversion to Judaism, Cholake, Bnai Noach, Congregation Leadership, Self Improvement, Weekly Torah Parsha and much more..<br />
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* [http://www.bnei-noach.net Bnei-Noach.net & BneiNoah.org: Judaism for non-jewish people (Russian)] This site collects materials in russian about Bnei Noach and laws of Torah for non-jewish people.<br />
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* [http://bnei-noach.de Bnei-noach.de] Verein B´nei Noach. Informationen über das Judentum für Juden und Noachiden. Schwabach - Germany<br />
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* [http://bneinoahdobrasil.com.br Bnei Noah do Brasil] é um centro de estudos virtual comprometido em facilitar o acesso a todas as pessoas, aos conhecimentos acerca do Judaísmo praticado por não judeus: “As 7 Leis do Pacto de Noah” - Courses offered are from United Noahide Academies/asknoah.org - (Portuguese)<br />
<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/2883 Bnei Noach Information Home Page (Geocities)]<br />
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* [http://brit.bnainoach.com/ Brit.BnaiNoach.com: Rabbi Moshe Kerr's B'nai No'ach Alliance]<br />
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* [http://webpages.charter.net/chavurathbneinoach Chavurath B'nei Noach]<br />
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* [http://www.chayas.com/isnoach.htm Chayas.com: Discussion about Noahide Muslims]<br />
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* [http://fulvida.com Fulvida.com] Bienvenidos al sitio oficial de FULVIDA, Fundacio'n Luz de Vida Internacional. Esperamos que vuestra visita en nuestro sitio sea de bendicio'n y edificacio'n. Disfruten los textos que les presentamos y no duden en hacernos llegar sus comentarios edificantes.<br />
<br />
* [http://hiddenlandinstitute.com HiddenLandInstitute.com:] The First Noahide College in Canada. An Independent Non-Profit College of Religion offering degree programs.]<br />
<br />
* [http://eduplanet.net/ Eduplanet: Torah Educational Community for Jews and Bnei Noah] Tape library. Mostly in Spanish, also Hebrew, English, German, Italian, and Portuguese. Directed by Rabbi Daniel I. Ginerman, including EduplaNet.Net, Ieshivah.Net, Iahadut.Net, Carmiel.Net, KolIsrael.TV, KolIsrael.Info<br />
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* [http://www.hamikdash.com/Rambam.html HaMikdash.com: The Responsibilities of the Gentiles]<br />
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* [http://www.hasidicgentile.org HasidicGentile.org: Yehido Shel Olam (The Unique One of the Universe - The Only One of Being)]<br />
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* [http://www.highcouncilofbnainoach.org High Council of Bnai Noach]<br />
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* [http://www.jewishbrazil.com/fnoe.htm JewishBrazil.com: A TORA' PARA OS NAO JUDEUS - OS FILHOS DE NOE'. (portuguese)]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.kinder-noah.de Kinder-Noah.de] Gemäß der Bibel sind wir alle Nachkommen eines einzigen Mannes – Noah. G-tt schloss mit ihm und allen Menschen einen Bund und gab ihm sieben biblische Gesetze, wie sie Adam und Noah – vor der Offenbarung G-ttes gegenüber Moses am Berg Sinai – gegeben wurden. (deutsch)<br />
<br />
* [http://www.7loispourlhumanite.org La Charte des Nations. 7 lois pour l'Humanite] Notre ambition est la diffusion du titre gratuit 7 lois pour l’Humanité sur l’ensemble du territoire français à plus de 1 million d’exemplaires par grande ville. La distribution sera assurée, soit par une distribution directe devant les sorties de Métro ou dans les grandes gares du pays, soit dans les boîtes aux lettres. Meyer Tangi.<br />
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* [http://www.milechai.com/judaism/bnai-noach.html MileChai.com: (Mile High) Bnai Noah Classes in Colorado]<br />
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* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Ithaca/3232 Myth-conceptions About B'nai Noach Page! (Geocities)]<br />
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* [http://geocities.com/basnoach/ Myth-conceptions About B'nai Noach. An introduction to the B'nai Noach faith.]<br />
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* [http://www.noach.com Noach.com: Derech Ben Noach] also [http://www.noach.com/emmanuel Emmanuel study center]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noahidenations.org NoachideNations.org & NoachideNations.com & BneiNoach.com & BneiNoah.com: The Noahide Nations] The Noahide Nations web community sponsored and created by Torah Centered Noahides, and is dedicated to Torah Centered Noahides as well as those who wish to become Torah Centered Noahides, providing many articles as well as virtual online study courses.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noachieten.nl Noachieten Nederland] In de traditie van Noach. Rabbijn Friedrich reist maandelijks van Antwerpen naar Amsterdam om les te geven aan noachieten. De B. Folkertmastichting voor Talmudica in Hilversum organiseert cursussen voor iedereen die geïnteresseerd is in het Jodendom en de Joodse tradities.<br />
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* [http://www.noahideseminary.org Noahide Seminary offering Ordination in Noahide Clergy]<br />
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* [http://noachidestudycentre.webs.com/ Noahide Study Centre] Yochanan ben Avraham's Noachide Study Centre: Foundation, Divine Proof, Noachide, Prayer, Family, Holidays.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.printfection.com/noahgear Noah Gear] Clothing designs for Noahides (Bnei Noah).<br />
<br />
* [http://noachiden.nl Noachiden Nederland] Elke maand worden een van de dertien principes van Maimonides en een van de zeven geboden van Noach behandeld. Hierbij proberen wij ons zoveel mogelijk te conformeren aan de rabbinale interpretatie van de Thora, met name aan de interpretatie van de noachidische rechtbank in Jeruzalem.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noahide-laws.com Noahide-laws.com] A list of the seven laws.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noahide.us Noahide.us] A list of the seven laws.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noahidebooks.com NoahideBooks.com]: The Chronicles of the Children of Destiny available to read free online<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noahidehomeschool.org Noahide Online Association of Homeschoolers]. Noahide Online Association of Homeschoolers (N.O.A.H.) is focused on providing the necessary bridge for both the instructional materials and support Gentile parents need to foster active Torah-based spiritual development in their children.<br />
<br />
* [http://noahidesevencommandments.com NoahideSevenCommandments.com] Learn here about the Story of Creation, Noah’s Flood, and Noah’s Seven Commandments in a personal, compassionate way. Rabbi Zvi Aviner.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.okbns.org/ Oklahoma B'nai Noach Society] An autonomous Noahide Group located in Tulsa, Oklahoma: Calendar/Events, Reading Room, Noahide Shoppe.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.qumran.org/bnainoach Qumran.org: Bnai Noach Deutschland]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/rachav Rachav's B'nai Noah Page (Geocities)] Explanation of the Noahide Covenant, other essays and outlines about Noahides and the precepts of their faith. Australia<br />
<br />
* [http://www.rb.org.il/Fellowship%20Noahide/noahcom.htm RB.org: Noah Institute] Rabbi Yehoshua Friedman, Founder and Chairman. Organization founded by Torah-observant Jews, promotes cooperation between the State of Israel and other nations, and between Jews and B'nai Noah (non-Jews) in Israel and abroad.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/the_uk_ark These are the generations of Noah (Geocities)]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.ijc.com.au The Institute of Judaism and Civilization]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.thesanhedrin.org/en/courtbneinoah/ TheSanhedrin.org: Special Court for Matters Concerning Bnei NoaH] under the auspices of the [http://TheSanhedrin.org/en nascent Sanhedrin]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.torah4noahides.i8.com/ Torah4Noahides.i8.com: Reaching Out to the Non-Jew]<br />
<br />
* [http://redneck_rastafarian.tripod.com Tripod: "The Redneck Rastafarian"]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.unitednoachidecouncil.org UnitedNoachideCouncil.org] United Noachide Council, Inc was founded in 2006 by Billy Jack Dial to serve the needs of Noachides worldwide. One of the primary organization’s goals and future purpose is to support a democratically run General Noachide Council that represents the interests and needs of "All" Noachide Communities throughout the world, and ultimatly to support a Supreme United Noachide Council composed of only qualified Noachide judges which will have graduated from a yeshiva for B'nei Noach in Israel. <br />
<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/vidanoajica Vida Noajica (español) (Geocities)]<br />
<br />
* [http://noahchat.virtualyeshiva.com VirtualYeshiva.com: Noah Chat, part of the VirtualYeshiva.com]<br />
<br />
* [http://western-washington-bnai-noach.org/ Western Washington B'nai Noach] B'nai Noach is not just for ex-Christians -- it is for everyone who wants a closer and less cluttered relationship with the Creator of the universe.<br />
<br />
* [http://western-washington-bnai-noach.org/ Western Washington Bnai Noach]<br />
<br />
* [http://community.livejournal.com/ru_bneinoah Бней Ноах в России. Соберёмся?] Задавайте свои вопросы в комментариях к этой теме, в комментариях же будут и ответы.<br />
<br />
===Blogs===<br />
<br />
* [http://bnainoah.blogspot.com Bnai Noah] Bnai Noah often feel the need to explore non traditional ways to connect and to enjoy the benefits of community. I hope to provide that opportunity.<br />
<br />
* [http://bneinoachamerica.blogspot.com Bnei Noach - Cabalá e Meditação]<br />
<br />
* [http://bneinoah.blogspot.com Bnei Noa'h] Une Tora pour le monde entier<br />
<br />
* [http://bnei-noah.blogspot.com BNEI NOAH : Le projet d'humanité de la Torah d'Israël] Les enfantements d'Israël comme vecteur de l'universel selon Rav Léon Askénazi<br />
<br />
* [http://groups.myspace.com/bneinoach B'nei Noach (MySpace)] A Discussion group focused at B'nei Noach. Members of this group can ask questions and raise issues concerning B'nei Noach, God, Judaism or anything relevant to Noachides.<br />
<br />
* [http://breslov.spaces.live.com/ Bnei Noah do Brasil]Bnei Noah do Brasil Por Bentzion Rodrigues., with United Noahide Academies (asknoah.org) Breve Introduc,a~o ao Pacto de Noah, breslov<br />
<br />
* [http://bnei-noah.livejournal.com/ Bnei Noah: Russian Community, Женский колель иудаики 1-й урок]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.childofnoah.info/ Child of Noah] The Children of Naoh is a part of the Noahide movement that is also affiliated with, but not a part of, Judaism. <br />
<br />
* [http://community.livejournal.com/bnai_noah/ Community of Noahides] The Livejournal community dedicated to the Children of Noah everywhere. Intended to as a conduit for Noahide friendship and edification,to build our faith in today's world. We will also strive to educate others about our beliefs and convictions.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.iheartnoahides.com/ I Heart Noahides] Embracing the Noahide world through Torah and friendship.<br />
<br />
* [http://myspace.com/noahides Haven Noahide Fellowship (MySpace)] Canberra, Australian Capital Territory<br />
<br />
* [http://noah.ilovetorah.com/blog/ ilovetorah Sons of Noah] This site is meant to be an information center and community for those that follow the 7 commandments of Noah. What are the 7 commandments? How do they apply to us and our everyday lives? Why are they so important and why should we follow them instead of an other religion such as xtianity?<br />
<br />
* [http://www.myspace.com/kingdomofnoah The Kingdom of Noah (MySpace)] Homepage for the Micronation the 'Kingdom of Noah' from New South Wales Australia.<br />
<br />
* [http://hagoyim.blogspot.com/ Noachides' Abode] including [http://noachides-abode.googlegroups.com/web/Noachide%20Prayerbook.pdf Noahide Prayer Book]<br />
<br />
* [http://noahidecommunity.blogspot.com/ Noahide Community]<br />
<br />
* [http://noahide-newsandviews.blogspot.com/ Noahide News and Views]<br />
<br />
* [http://lazerbrody.typepad.com/lazer_beams/bnai_noach/index.html Noahide Reflections] Lazer Brody dedicates his time to Jewish Outreach and supporting the Noahide movement, and particularly to spreading the teachings of Rebbe Nachman of Breslev.<br />
<br />
* [http://versunelibertedetre.hautetfort.com/archive/2009/03/27/noa-hides.html Noa'hides : Vers une liberté d'être] Dès l'aube de la création du monde, D.ieu a décrété que l'homme devra observer six lois éthiques fondamentales.<br />
* [http://xama-ben-noach.spaces.live.com/blog/cns!F52037500BD56108!519.entry T'FILÁ NOACHÍDICA (Orações)]<br />
<br />
* [http://torontonoahides.blogspot.com/ --- Toronto, Canada --- Toronto Noahides - Toronto Bnai Noah]<br />
<br />
==Chabad Approach==<br />
<br />
===Websites (listed A-Z)===<br />
<br />
* [http://www.asknoah.org AskNoah.org: United Noahide Academies]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.bneinoach.eu bneinoach.eu] I Sette Comandamenti dei Discendenti di Noah, Italia<br />
<br />
* [http://www.pt.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/666759/jewish/7-Leis-de-No.htm 7 Leis de Noé]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword_cdo/kid/2123/jewish/Seven-Noahide-Laws.htm Chabad.org » Knowledge Base] Noahide Laws, The Seven: Seven universal laws -- a morality code -- which form the basis of civilization. All descendents of Noah, i.e. all of humanity, are required to follow these laws.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.chabad.org.br/tora/7leis/index2.html Chabad Portugal, Bnei Noach] As sete leis de Nôach Este Código de Sete Leis Fundamentais é tão abrangente que dá estrutura e propósito à vida para todos os tempos, guiando a humanidade a perceber seu potencial máximo e sua semelhança com o Criador.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.freeyellow.com/members5/cfmbnainoach Christians for Moses/Ex-Christians and Noahide Ministry of South Florida]A group of Noachides who, like Jews for Judaism, work to provide information to assist in countering missionary efforts.<br />
<br />
* [http://id-chabad-noahide.wikispaces.com In-do-ne-si-a Chabad Noahide] This is a community place to learn and share your interest in Noahide Movement (also known as Bnei Noach). The local Noahide movement is supported and strictly supervised by Chabad In-do-ne-si-a.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noahide.org Noahide.org: Institute of Noahide code]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noajidas.org Noajidas Argentina]<br />
<br />
* [http://moshiach.com/action/morality/in-depth.php Moshiach.com: Free Online Book: 'The Path of the Righteous Gentile']<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noachide.net/ Noachide.net & Noachide.info & Noachide.org.uk] The New Noachide Study Group of Great Britain. A new group has started up in the UK for Bnai Noach, under the direction and supervision of Rabbi Yitzchok Sufrin, shlit'a (Director of the Friends of Small Communities, which is a division of Chabad-Lubavitch UK), with the help and support of the Director of the 'United Noahide Academies' (www.asknoah.org). <br />
<br />
* [http://www.noachide.eu Noachide.eu: The New Noachide Study Group of Great Britain] Serving a small group of Noachides from all over Great Britain, who meet on a monthly basis to study the Seven Laws of Noah with an orthodox Chabad Rabbi.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noahsons.com NoahSons.com: NOAH's SONS]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.novanoahides.org/ NOVANoahides.org: a Noahide community in N. Virginia] NOVA Noahides is a small group of Noachide Chassids in Northern Virginia who seek to connect with others in our area interested in learning about the Seven Noahide Laws.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.academyofshem.com The Academy of Shem: Educational resources for Noahides] Noahide website disputing Christianity<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noahide.com Noahide.com: Jews & Hasidic Gentiles - United to Save America]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.moshiach.com/action/the-seven-noahide-laws Moshiach.com: The Seven Noahide Laws]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/4594 The Ark - Home of the UK B'nei Noach]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.tumms.org/nonjews/ Yiddishkeit 101, Especially for Non-Jews]<br />
<br />
===Blogs===<br />
<br />
* [http://arcadenoebrasil.blogspot.com Arca de Noé] Blog da comunidade Chassidey Umot HaOlam do Orkut. Somos uma comunidade de Bnei Noach, voltados na pratica, estudo e divulgação das 7 leis de Noach. Ou como alguns chamam as 7 leis Universais.<br />
<br />
* [http://newnoahide.blogspot.com/ New Noahide blogspot]<br />
<br />
* [http://noahide.typepad.com/noahide_reflections/ Noahide Reflections] dedicated to inspiring fellow Noahides to do all they can to bring Moshiach into the world. Noahide Reflections also serves as an oasis for individuals who have left Christian organizations with more questions than answers.<br />
<br />
==Theosebeia==<br />
<br />
* [http://theosebeia.org Theosebeia.org] (theosebeia.com, godfearers.com, godfearers.org), is an educational project of the UNC dedicated to investigating the manifestation of "Noahism" throughout the ages from an historical perspective. It is similiar to wikinoah.org, which covers the same information from a Rabbinical perspective.<br />
<br />
* [http://sebomenoi.org Sabians - Sebomenoi.org] is a website about Kenite Sabiism for Kenites and is affiliated with UNCinc.org. Kenite Sabiism is only one branch of the universal Noahism. (Kenites are another name for the children of Jethro).<br />
<br />
* [http://www.daghdaprod.com/ Daghda's Grove] Personal site of a Druid that is following the laws of Noah. Includes theological inquiries.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Maillists & Forums]]<br />
<br />
==Resources & Research==<br />
* [http://www.HowHebrewWorks.com HowHebrewWorks.com] Course "[[Beginning Hebrew Reading for Bnai Noach]]"<br />
* [http://www.WikiNoah.org WikiNoah.org: Your Wiki Noachide Information Source]<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noahide Wikipedia.org: Noahide Laws]<br />
* [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=113&letter=L&search=noahide%20laws Jewish Encyclopedia: Noachian Laws]<br />
* [http://www.ijc.com.au The Institute of Judaism and Civilization]<br />
* [http://www.jlaw.com/Articles/noach2.html JLaw: The Obligation of Jews to Seek Observance of Noachide Laws by Gentiles: A Theoretical Review]<br />
* [http://www.inner.org/noahide/noach1.htm Inner.org: The Seven Principles of Divine Service for Righteous Gentiles]<br />
* [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/jewfaq/gentiles.htm Gentiles and Idolatry] - How Torah applies to Gentiles<br />
* [http://www.panix.com/~jjbaker/MadaAkum.html The Laws on Idol Worship] - A translation of 'The Laws on Idolatry' in the Mishneh Torah.<br />
* [http://program.ouradio.org/audio/savitsky/atdrt_36.mp3 OU Radio show on Bnei Noah - The Jew, The Minister and The Bnei Noah]<br />
* [http://www.noahidehomeschool.org Noahide Online Association of Homeschoolers]. Noahide Online Association of Homeschoolers (N.O.A.H.) is focused on providing the necessary bridge for both the instructional materials and support Gentile parents need to foster active Torah-based spiritual development in their children.<br />
* [http://www.levinas.fr/textes/pager.asp?a=1&p=7 L’universel en question] Noahisme et retour à partir des Lectures talmudiques d’Emmanuel Lévinas<br />
* [http://sefardi.over-blog.fr/article-33088157.html “Les Fils de Noé”, un retour aux sources de l’Humanité]<br />
* [http://www.sefer.com.br/prodvar.aspx?codigo_produto=11381 7 Leis Universais dos B'nei Noach (Portuguese) by Baron Camilo Agasim-Pereira of Fulwood]<br />
* [http://www.sefer.com.br/prodvar.aspx?codigo_produto=11382 Kol-Noach Siddur Completo de Oração Para os B'nei Noach by Baron Camilo Agasim-Pereira of Fulwood]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Benamozegh Approach]]<br />
[[Category:Chabad Approach]]</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=Websites&diff=16342Websites2013-02-14T10:26:10Z<p>HaNoahide: /* Resources & Research */</p>
<hr />
<div>This is a hopefully comprehensive list of all noahide website on the internet. Please add any that are missing. Eventually these sites should be broken into categories and each of these links should be made into Wikinoah pages that review the websites. See also [[Maillists & Forums]]<br />
<br />
==General Approach==<br />
<br />
* [http://www.webring.com/hub?ring=noachring Webring.com] B'nei Noach Ring for Promotion of the 7 Universal Laws<br />
<br />
===Websites (listed A-Z)===<br />
<br />
* [http://www.1stcovenant.org 1stCovenant.org & RainbowCovenant.org: The First Covenant Foundation] Michael Dallen, a longtime writer and attorney, Jack E. Saunders, who began his professional career as a Baptist pastor, and Rabbi Michael Katz provide a wide variety of information on the Noahide Covenant, which they also call the Rainbow Covenant or Universal Covenant. Michael Dallen's book can be found [http://rainbowcovenant.org/pages/thebook.htm here]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.7commands.com 7commands.com: World Outreach] by Dr. Akiva Gamliel Belk, Discussions from the Universe's Original Belief System.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.7for70.com 7for70.com: Seven Noahide Laws: The Seventh Era]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.7lawsforhumanity.org 7 Laws for Humanity] is a non-profit association run by Meyer Tangi in Paris which aims at supporting the diffusion and the transmission of the values related to Judaism and the culture in general. <br />
<br />
* [http://http://www.7loispourlhumanite.org 7 Lois Pour Humanite]L’association dénommée Institut de Recherche Francophone d’Histoire Juive éditrice du site 7loispourlhumanite.org - est une association à but non lucratif qui a pour objectifs de soutenir la diffusion et la transmission des valeurs relatives au Judaïsme et de la culture en général. Meyer Tangi de Paris.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.aish.com/jw/s/80405497.html Aish HaTorah's Noahide Section]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.7for70.net Belarus Noahides]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.benenoach.info BeneNoach.info Italian Bnai Noach Site] See the [[Sito Noachide (Italian Website)|review on this site]].<br />
<br />
* [http://www.beni-noah.com/ Beni-noah.com: Website of Rabbi Yoel Shwartz] vice-chairman of the Sanhedrin & head of the Court for Bnei Noach.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.bnainoach.com BnaiNoach.com: B'nai No'ach Friends and Social network]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/~alyza/noachide/n-posts.htm Bnai-Noach: The Seven Laws of Noach (Geocities)]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/6235/ Bnai Noach Educational Development Group Webpage] the seven laws of the sons of noah bnai noach are the moral expectations of humanity supported by prayer celebration song and fellowship. By Pinchas Richard Wimberly<br />
<br />
* [http://www.auburn.edu/~allenkc/7laws.html The Seven Laws of Noah and Related Concepts] A collection of articles on the Noahide movement.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.bnai-noach-of-tacoma.org B'nai Noach of Tacoma] located in South Tacoma in Washington State. We meet every Sabbath and on the Biblical Holy Days.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.bnainoachnews.com BnaiNoachNews.com: News & Information] This website presents a public news, information and forums to link communities belonging to the Noahide Movement around the world. Billy Jack also hosts the [http://wikinoah.org/ Noachide Wikipedia], the online encyclopedia of the Noahide movement, as well as a [http://www.bnainoach.com/ Bnai Noach friends social site] and the [http://www.unitednoachidecouncil.com/ United Noachide Council]. <br />
<br />
* [http://www.bnainoah.net BnaiNoah.net & BneiNoah.net: Agudat B'nai Noach]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.bnainoah.org BnaiNoah.org] Information on the Noahide laws in a well-presented and thorough manner, especially the more involved aspects of their practice and interface with Judaism, and also to be a general resource to Noahides and other interested parties. Hashkafically aligned with centrist modern Orthodoxy in the Jewish world, especially with grand tradition of the Rav, Rabbi Joseph B. Solovetichik ז''ל.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.bnti.us BNTI.us: B’nai Noach Torah Institute] Where we offer courses in Judaism, Spirituality {7 Noaich Commands}, Noahide, Torah, Returning to Judaism, Discussions on Conversion to Judaism, Cholake, Bnai Noach, Congregation Leadership, Self Improvement, Weekly Torah Parsha and much more..<br />
<br />
* [http://www.bnei-noach.net Bnei-Noach.net & BneiNoah.org: Judaism for non-jewish people (Russian)] This site collects materials in russian about Bnei Noach and laws of Torah for non-jewish people.<br />
<br />
* [http://bnei-noach.de Bnei-noach.de] Verein B´nei Noach. Informationen über das Judentum für Juden und Noachiden. Schwabach - Germany<br />
<br />
* [http://bneinoahdobrasil.com.br Bnei Noah do Brasil] é um centro de estudos virtual comprometido em facilitar o acesso a todas as pessoas, aos conhecimentos acerca do Judaísmo praticado por não judeus: “As 7 Leis do Pacto de Noah” - Courses offered are from United Noahide Academies/asknoah.org - (Portuguese)<br />
<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/2883 Bnei Noach Information Home Page (Geocities)]<br />
<br />
* [http://brit.bnainoach.com/ Brit.BnaiNoach.com: Rabbi Moshe Kerr's B'nai No'ach Alliance]<br />
<br />
* [http://webpages.charter.net/chavurathbneinoach Chavurath B'nei Noach]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.chayas.com/isnoach.htm Chayas.com: Discussion about Noahide Muslims]<br />
<br />
* [http://fulvida.com Fulvida.com] Bienvenidos al sitio oficial de FULVIDA, Fundacio'n Luz de Vida Internacional. Esperamos que vuestra visita en nuestro sitio sea de bendicio'n y edificacio'n. Disfruten los textos que les presentamos y no duden en hacernos llegar sus comentarios edificantes.<br />
<br />
* [http://hiddenlandinstitute.com HiddenLandInstitute.com:] The First Noahide College in Canada. An Independent Non-Profit College of Religion offering degree programs.]<br />
<br />
* [http://eduplanet.net/ Eduplanet: Torah Educational Community for Jews and Bnei Noah] Tape library. Mostly in Spanish, also Hebrew, English, German, Italian, and Portuguese. Directed by Rabbi Daniel I. Ginerman, including EduplaNet.Net, Ieshivah.Net, Iahadut.Net, Carmiel.Net, KolIsrael.TV, KolIsrael.Info<br />
<br />
* [http://www.hamikdash.com/Rambam.html HaMikdash.com: The Responsibilities of the Gentiles]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.hasidicgentile.org HasidicGentile.org: Yehido Shel Olam (The Unique One of the Universe - The Only One of Being)]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.highcouncilofbnainoach.org High Council of Bnai Noach]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.jewishbrazil.com/fnoe.htm JewishBrazil.com: A TORA' PARA OS NAO JUDEUS - OS FILHOS DE NOE'. (portuguese)]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.kinder-noah.de Kinder-Noah.de] Gemäß der Bibel sind wir alle Nachkommen eines einzigen Mannes – Noah. G-tt schloss mit ihm und allen Menschen einen Bund und gab ihm sieben biblische Gesetze, wie sie Adam und Noah – vor der Offenbarung G-ttes gegenüber Moses am Berg Sinai – gegeben wurden. (deutsch)<br />
<br />
* [http://www.7loispourlhumanite.org La Charte des Nations. 7 lois pour l'Humanite] Notre ambition est la diffusion du titre gratuit 7 lois pour l’Humanité sur l’ensemble du territoire français à plus de 1 million d’exemplaires par grande ville. La distribution sera assurée, soit par une distribution directe devant les sorties de Métro ou dans les grandes gares du pays, soit dans les boîtes aux lettres. Meyer Tangi.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.milechai.com/judaism/bnai-noach.html MileChai.com: (Mile High) Bnai Noah Classes in Colorado]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Ithaca/3232 Myth-conceptions About B'nai Noach Page! (Geocities)]<br />
<br />
* [http://geocities.com/basnoach/ Myth-conceptions About B'nai Noach. An introduction to the B'nai Noach faith.]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noach.com Noach.com: Derech Ben Noach] also [http://www.noach.com/emmanuel Emmanuel study center]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noahidenations.org NoachideNations.org & NoachideNations.com & BneiNoach.com & BneiNoah.com: The Noahide Nations] The Noahide Nations web community sponsored and created by Torah Centered Noahides, and is dedicated to Torah Centered Noahides as well as those who wish to become Torah Centered Noahides, providing many articles as well as virtual online study courses.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noachieten.nl Noachieten Nederland] In de traditie van Noach. Rabbijn Friedrich reist maandelijks van Antwerpen naar Amsterdam om les te geven aan noachieten. De B. Folkertmastichting voor Talmudica in Hilversum organiseert cursussen voor iedereen die geïnteresseerd is in het Jodendom en de Joodse tradities.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noahideseminary.org Noahide Seminary offering Ordination in Noahide Clergy]<br />
<br />
* [http://noachidestudycentre.webs.com/ Noahide Study Centre] Yochanan ben Avraham's Noachide Study Centre: Foundation, Divine Proof, Noachide, Prayer, Family, Holidays.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.printfection.com/noahgear Noah Gear] Clothing designs for Noahides (Bnei Noah).<br />
<br />
* [http://noachiden.nl Noachiden Nederland] Elke maand worden een van de dertien principes van Maimonides en een van de zeven geboden van Noach behandeld. Hierbij proberen wij ons zoveel mogelijk te conformeren aan de rabbinale interpretatie van de Thora, met name aan de interpretatie van de noachidische rechtbank in Jeruzalem.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noahide-laws.com Noahide-laws.com] A list of the seven laws.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noahide.us Noahide.us] A list of the seven laws.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noahidebooks.com NoahideBooks.com]: The Chronicles of the Children of Destiny available to read free online<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noahidehomeschool.org Noahide Online Association of Homeschoolers]. Noahide Online Association of Homeschoolers (N.O.A.H.) is focused on providing the necessary bridge for both the instructional materials and support Gentile parents need to foster active Torah-based spiritual development in their children.<br />
<br />
* [http://noahidesevencommandments.com NoahideSevenCommandments.com] Learn here about the Story of Creation, Noah’s Flood, and Noah’s Seven Commandments in a personal, compassionate way. Rabbi Zvi Aviner.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.okbns.org/ Oklahoma B'nai Noach Society] An autonomous Noahide Group located in Tulsa, Oklahoma: Calendar/Events, Reading Room, Noahide Shoppe.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.qumran.org/bnainoach Qumran.org: Bnai Noach Deutschland]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/rachav Rachav's B'nai Noah Page (Geocities)] Explanation of the Noahide Covenant, other essays and outlines about Noahides and the precepts of their faith. Australia<br />
<br />
* [http://www.rb.org.il/Fellowship%20Noahide/noahcom.htm RB.org: Noah Institute] Rabbi Yehoshua Friedman, Founder and Chairman. Organization founded by Torah-observant Jews, promotes cooperation between the State of Israel and other nations, and between Jews and B'nai Noah (non-Jews) in Israel and abroad.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/the_uk_ark These are the generations of Noah (Geocities)]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.ijc.com.au The Institute of Judaism and Civilization]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.thesanhedrin.org/en/courtbneinoah/ TheSanhedrin.org: Special Court for Matters Concerning Bnei NoaH] under the auspices of the [http://TheSanhedrin.org/en nascent Sanhedrin]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.torah4noahides.i8.com/ Torah4Noahides.i8.com: Reaching Out to the Non-Jew]<br />
<br />
* [http://redneck_rastafarian.tripod.com Tripod: "The Redneck Rastafarian"]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.unitednoachidecouncil.org UnitedNoachideCouncil.org] United Noachide Council, Inc was founded in 2006 by Billy Jack Dial to serve the needs of Noachides worldwide. One of the primary organization’s goals and future purpose is to support a democratically run General Noachide Council that represents the interests and needs of "All" Noachide Communities throughout the world, and ultimatly to support a Supreme United Noachide Council composed of only qualified Noachide judges which will have graduated from a yeshiva for B'nei Noach in Israel. <br />
<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/vidanoajica Vida Noajica (español) (Geocities)]<br />
<br />
* [http://noahchat.virtualyeshiva.com VirtualYeshiva.com: Noah Chat, part of the VirtualYeshiva.com]<br />
<br />
* [http://western-washington-bnai-noach.org/ Western Washington B'nai Noach] B'nai Noach is not just for ex-Christians -- it is for everyone who wants a closer and less cluttered relationship with the Creator of the universe.<br />
<br />
* [http://western-washington-bnai-noach.org/ Western Washington Bnai Noach]<br />
<br />
* [http://community.livejournal.com/ru_bneinoah Бней Ноах в России. Соберёмся?] Задавайте свои вопросы в комментариях к этой теме, в комментариях же будут и ответы.<br />
<br />
===Blogs===<br />
<br />
* [http://bnainoah.blogspot.com Bnai Noah] Bnai Noah often feel the need to explore non traditional ways to connect and to enjoy the benefits of community. I hope to provide that opportunity.<br />
<br />
* [http://bneinoachamerica.blogspot.com Bnei Noach - Cabalá e Meditação]<br />
<br />
* [http://bneinoah.blogspot.com Bnei Noa'h] Une Tora pour le monde entier<br />
<br />
* [http://bnei-noah.blogspot.com BNEI NOAH : Le projet d'humanité de la Torah d'Israël] Les enfantements d'Israël comme vecteur de l'universel selon Rav Léon Askénazi<br />
<br />
* [http://groups.myspace.com/bneinoach B'nei Noach (MySpace)] A Discussion group focused at B'nei Noach. Members of this group can ask questions and raise issues concerning B'nei Noach, God, Judaism or anything relevant to Noachides.<br />
<br />
* [http://breslov.spaces.live.com/ Bnei Noah do Brasil]Bnei Noah do Brasil Por Bentzion Rodrigues., with United Noahide Academies (asknoah.org) Breve Introduc,a~o ao Pacto de Noah, breslov<br />
<br />
* [http://bnei-noah.livejournal.com/ Bnei Noah: Russian Community, Женский колель иудаики 1-й урок]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.childofnoah.info/ Child of Noah] The Children of Naoh is a part of the Noahide movement that is also affiliated with, but not a part of, Judaism. <br />
<br />
* [http://community.livejournal.com/bnai_noah/ Community of Noahides] The Livejournal community dedicated to the Children of Noah everywhere. Intended to as a conduit for Noahide friendship and edification,to build our faith in today's world. We will also strive to educate others about our beliefs and convictions.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.iheartnoahides.com/ I Heart Noahides] Embracing the Noahide world through Torah and friendship.<br />
<br />
* [http://myspace.com/noahides Haven Noahide Fellowship (MySpace)] Canberra, Australian Capital Territory<br />
<br />
* [http://noah.ilovetorah.com/blog/ ilovetorah Sons of Noah] This site is meant to be an information center and community for those that follow the 7 commandments of Noah. What are the 7 commandments? How do they apply to us and our everyday lives? Why are they so important and why should we follow them instead of an other religion such as xtianity?<br />
<br />
* [http://www.myspace.com/kingdomofnoah The Kingdom of Noah (MySpace)] Homepage for the Micronation the 'Kingdom of Noah' from New South Wales Australia.<br />
<br />
* [http://hagoyim.blogspot.com/ Noachides' Abode] including [http://noachides-abode.googlegroups.com/web/Noachide%20Prayerbook.pdf Noahide Prayer Book]<br />
<br />
* [http://noahidecommunity.blogspot.com/ Noahide Community]<br />
<br />
* [http://noahide-newsandviews.blogspot.com/ Noahide News and Views]<br />
<br />
* [http://lazerbrody.typepad.com/lazer_beams/bnai_noach/index.html Noahide Reflections] Lazer Brody dedicates his time to Jewish Outreach and supporting the Noahide movement, and particularly to spreading the teachings of Rebbe Nachman of Breslev.<br />
<br />
* [http://versunelibertedetre.hautetfort.com/archive/2009/03/27/noa-hides.html Noa'hides : Vers une liberté d'être] Dès l'aube de la création du monde, D.ieu a décrété que l'homme devra observer six lois éthiques fondamentales.<br />
* [http://xama-ben-noach.spaces.live.com/blog/cns!F52037500BD56108!519.entry T'FILÁ NOACHÍDICA (Orações)]<br />
<br />
* [http://torontonoahides.blogspot.com/ --- Toronto, Canada --- Toronto Noahides - Toronto Bnai Noah]<br />
<br />
==Chabad Approach==<br />
<br />
===Websites (listed A-Z)===<br />
<br />
* [http://www.asknoah.org AskNoah.org: United Noahide Academies]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.bneinoach.eu bneinoach.eu] I Sette Comandamenti dei Discendenti di Noah, Italia<br />
<br />
* [http://www.pt.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/666759/jewish/7-Leis-de-No.htm 7 Leis de Noé]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword_cdo/kid/2123/jewish/Seven-Noahide-Laws.htm Chabad.org » Knowledge Base] Noahide Laws, The Seven: Seven universal laws -- a morality code -- which form the basis of civilization. All descendents of Noah, i.e. all of humanity, are required to follow these laws.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.chabad.org.br/tora/7leis/index2.html Chabad Portugal, Bnei Noach] As sete leis de Nôach Este Código de Sete Leis Fundamentais é tão abrangente que dá estrutura e propósito à vida para todos os tempos, guiando a humanidade a perceber seu potencial máximo e sua semelhança com o Criador.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.freeyellow.com/members5/cfmbnainoach Christians for Moses/Ex-Christians and Noahide Ministry of South Florida]A group of Noachides who, like Jews for Judaism, work to provide information to assist in countering missionary efforts.<br />
<br />
* [http://id-chabad-noahide.wikispaces.com In-do-ne-si-a Chabad Noahide] This is a community place to learn and share your interest in Noahide Movement (also known as Bnei Noach). The local Noahide movement is supported and strictly supervised by Chabad In-do-ne-si-a.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noahide.org Noahide.org: Institute of Noahide code]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noajidas.org Noajidas Argentina]<br />
<br />
* [http://moshiach.com/action/morality/in-depth.php Moshiach.com: Free Online Book: 'The Path of the Righteous Gentile']<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noachide.net/ Noachide.net & Noachide.info & Noachide.org.uk] The New Noachide Study Group of Great Britain. A new group has started up in the UK for Bnai Noach, under the direction and supervision of Rabbi Yitzchok Sufrin, shlit'a (Director of the Friends of Small Communities, which is a division of Chabad-Lubavitch UK), with the help and support of the Director of the 'United Noahide Academies' (www.asknoah.org). <br />
<br />
* [http://www.noachide.eu Noachide.eu: The New Noachide Study Group of Great Britain] Serving a small group of Noachides from all over Great Britain, who meet on a monthly basis to study the Seven Laws of Noah with an orthodox Chabad Rabbi.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noahsons.com NoahSons.com: NOAH's SONS]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.novanoahides.org/ NOVANoahides.org: a Noahide community in N. Virginia] NOVA Noahides is a small group of Noachide Chassids in Northern Virginia who seek to connect with others in our area interested in learning about the Seven Noahide Laws.<br />
<br />
* [http://www.academyofshem.com The Academy of Shem: Educational resources for Noahides] Noahide website disputing Christianity<br />
<br />
* [http://www.noahide.com Noahide.com: Jews & Hasidic Gentiles - United to Save America]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.moshiach.com/action/the-seven-noahide-laws Moshiach.com: The Seven Noahide Laws]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/4594 The Ark - Home of the UK B'nei Noach]<br />
<br />
* [http://www.tumms.org/nonjews/ Yiddishkeit 101, Especially for Non-Jews]<br />
<br />
===Blogs===<br />
<br />
* [http://arcadenoebrasil.blogspot.com Arca de Noé] Blog da comunidade Chassidey Umot HaOlam do Orkut. Somos uma comunidade de Bnei Noach, voltados na pratica, estudo e divulgação das 7 leis de Noach. Ou como alguns chamam as 7 leis Universais.<br />
<br />
* [http://newnoahide.blogspot.com/ New Noahide blogspot]<br />
<br />
* [http://noahide.typepad.com/noahide_reflections/ Noahide Reflections] dedicated to inspiring fellow Noahides to do all they can to bring Moshiach into the world. Noahide Reflections also serves as an oasis for individuals who have left Christian organizations with more questions than answers.<br />
<br />
==Theosebeia==<br />
<br />
* [http://theosebeia.org Theosebeia.org] (theosebeia.com, godfearers.com, godfearers.org), is an educational project of the UNC dedicated to investigating the manifestation of "Noahism" throughout the ages from an historical perspective. It is similiar to wikinoah.org, which covers the same information from a Rabbinical perspective.<br />
<br />
* [http://sebomenoi.org Sabians - Sebomenoi.org] is a website about Kenite Sabiism for Kenites and is affiliated with UNCinc.org. Kenite Sabiism is only one branch of the universal Noahism. (Kenites are another name for the children of Jethro).<br />
<br />
* [http://www.daghdaprod.com/ Daghda's Grove] Personal site of a Druid that is following the laws of Noah. Includes theological inquiries.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Maillists & Forums]]<br />
<br />
==Resources & Research==<br />
* [http://www.HowHebrewWorks.com HowHebrewWorks.com: Course "[[Beginning Hebrew Reading for Bnai Noach]]"]<br />
* [http://www.WikiNoah.org WikiNoah.org: Your Wiki Noachide Information Source]<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noahide Wikipedia.org: Noahide Laws]<br />
* [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=113&letter=L&search=noahide%20laws Jewish Encyclopedia: Noachian Laws]<br />
* [http://www.ijc.com.au The Institute of Judaism and Civilization]<br />
* [http://www.jlaw.com/Articles/noach2.html JLaw: The Obligation of Jews to Seek Observance of Noachide Laws by Gentiles: A Theoretical Review]<br />
* [http://www.inner.org/noahide/noach1.htm Inner.org: The Seven Principles of Divine Service for Righteous Gentiles]<br />
* [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/jewfaq/gentiles.htm Gentiles and Idolatry] - How Torah applies to Gentiles<br />
* [http://www.panix.com/~jjbaker/MadaAkum.html The Laws on Idol Worship] - A translation of 'The Laws on Idolatry' in the Mishneh Torah.<br />
* [http://program.ouradio.org/audio/savitsky/atdrt_36.mp3 OU Radio show on Bnei Noah - The Jew, The Minister and The Bnei Noah]<br />
* [http://www.noahidehomeschool.org Noahide Online Association of Homeschoolers]. Noahide Online Association of Homeschoolers (N.O.A.H.) is focused on providing the necessary bridge for both the instructional materials and support Gentile parents need to foster active Torah-based spiritual development in their children.<br />
* [http://www.levinas.fr/textes/pager.asp?a=1&p=7 L’universel en question] Noahisme et retour à partir des Lectures talmudiques d’Emmanuel Lévinas<br />
* [http://sefardi.over-blog.fr/article-33088157.html “Les Fils de Noé”, un retour aux sources de l’Humanité]<br />
* [http://www.sefer.com.br/prodvar.aspx?codigo_produto=11381 7 Leis Universais dos B'nei Noach (Portuguese) by Baron Camilo Agasim-Pereira of Fulwood]<br />
* [http://www.sefer.com.br/prodvar.aspx?codigo_produto=11382 Kol-Noach Siddur Completo de Oração Para os B'nei Noach by Baron Camilo Agasim-Pereira of Fulwood]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Benamozegh Approach]]<br />
[[Category:Chabad Approach]]</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=Review_of_Rabbi_Benamozegh_by_JewishIdeas.org&diff=16274Review of Rabbi Benamozegh by JewishIdeas.org2013-02-12T08:45:00Z<p>HaNoahide: /* Chapter I */</p>
<hr />
<div>Rabbi Eliyahu Benamozegh: Israel and Humanity<ref>[http://www.jewishideas.org/articles/rabbi-eliyahu-benamoz Review of Rabbi Benamozegh] by JewishIdeas.org</ref><br><br />
Friday, October 24 2008<br />
<br />
(For many years, Dr. Luria taught medieval European literature and religion at Temple University in Philadelphia , later also teaching in Tokyo. His translation and edition of Rabbi Benamozegh's "Israel and Humanity" was published in 1995 by Paulist Press.)<br />
<br />
==Chapter I: Seeking to mend the fractures that divide us==<br />
<br />
Many Jews in our day, like many of our brethren of other tribes, are seeking to mend the fractures that divide us from ourselves and from others, and to find ways to heal the wounds that afflict us only six decades after the Holocaust and the rebirth of Israel. Amid these efforts, an idealistic, scholarly nineteenth-century rabbi from Livorno seems, to some, to provide a beacon of hope and humanity.<br />
<br />
Elijah ben Abraham Benamozegh (1822-1900) was highly respected in his day as one of Italy's most eminent Jewish scholars. (See Encyclopaedia Judaica, s.v. "Benamozegh"; Elijah Benamozegh, Israel and Humanity, trans. and ed. Maxwell Luria, New York: Paulist, 1995, xi-xvii, 1-29, 31-38, 378-402. I have drawn in several instances from material in the Translator's Introduction to this volume.) He served for half a century as rabbi of the important Jewish community of Livorno (Leghorn), where the Piazza Benamozegh now commemorates his name and distinction. R. Benamozegh was (and remains) celebrated as Italy's most articulate proponent of Kabbalah, at a time when Jewish mysticism was widely disdained. In Gershom Scholem's opinion, he and Franz Molitor were "the only two scholars of the age to approach the Kabbalah out of a fundamental sympathy and even affinity for its teachings." (Gershom Scholem, Kabbalah , Jerusalem, 1974, 202. Cited by Moshe Idel in his Appendix to Israel and Humanity, 397.) Later, owing significantly to the effective advocacy of his student and posthumous editor Aime Palliere, it was Benamozegh's persistent support of the Noahide idea and its implications for the spiritual life of all people that brought him most attention, and has<br />
encouraged the translation and republication of his works. (See Israel and Humanity, 18-21 et passim.) Most recently, however, it is the scope of his human sympathy and religious tolerance --- the seemingly effortless way in which Kabbalah's cosmic universality and Noahism's religious universality are somehow linked up in him alongside a scrupulous Orthodox rabbinism --- that have attracted particular attention, and identified him not only as a rare Orthodox rabbi --- "the Plato of Italian Judaism," as he was sometimes called (see Palliere in Israel and Humanity, 31), and "incontestably in the great line of the Sages of Israel" (Emile Touati, quoted by Luria in Israel and Humanity, 8) --- but as a timely and useful thinker as well.<br />
<br />
A brief glance at the Internet reveals how widely R. Benamozegh's ideas are being discussed, in Noahide and Christian as well as in Jewish circles, and how much research is currently being devoted to him. In recent decades, the book of his that has received most attention, Israel et l'Humanite (Israel and Humanity), has been published in Hebrew (1967), Italian (1990), and English (1995) translations (see Luria in Israel and Humanity, xii), and has made a deep impression on the contemporary Noahide movement. His other major work in French, La Morale Juive et la Morale Chretienne (Jewish and Christian Ethics), whose English translation had been published as early as 1873 but had long since gone out of print, was reissued in Jerusalem in 2000.Scholarly papers on R. Benamozegh are appearing, especially in Italy and France. (One of the most important recent essays in English is Moshe Idel's "Kabbalah in Elijah Benamozegh's Thought," which appears as an Appendix in Israel and Humanity, 378-402.) Alessandro Guetta's study Philosophie et Cabale dans la Pensee d'Elie Benamozegh (Padua, 1993), has recently been translated by Helena Kahan as Philosophy and Kabbalah: Elijah Benamozegh and the Reconciliation of Western Thought and Jewish Esotericism, and is scheduled for publication in October 2008 by the State University of New York Press in Albany.<br />
<br />
==Chapter II: Rabbi Steinsaltz's "hierarchical" conception==<br />
<br />
Some current rabbinical literature, too, discloses an awareness of R. Benamozegh. One must note in this connection Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz's remarkable paper, "Peace Without Conciliation: The Irrelevance of 'Toleration' in Judaism" (Common Knowledge , 2005: 11:41-47). Steinsaltz here affirms his opinion, perhaps without parallel in Orthodox rabbinical writings, that the Noahide criterion of monotheism -- the first of the seven universal mitzvot -- is satisfied not only by Islam (an embarras de richesses) but by modern Christianity as well: "By the standards of the Noahide laws, the doctrine of the Trinity is not an idolatrous belief to which Judaism can express an objection." And even, mirabile dictu, by contemporary Buddhism and Hinduism. To be sure, Steinsaltz hedges his revolutionary assertion with a discouraging title and subtitle, and with significant qualifications, especially with respect to what he sees as the difference between "Noahide monotheism" and "Jewish monotheism". But no matter -- the Noahide cat is out of the bag, and this article has --- properly and expectably --- attracted a good deal of attention.<br />
<br />
Steinsaltz's reference to R. Benamozegh comes in his last paragraph: ¿Even Elijah Benamozegh, who was perhaps the rabbinic figure most open toward, most appreciative of, Christianity and Islam, viewed the relation between Judaism and those other religions in hierarchical terms.¿ His acknowledgement here of R. Benamozegh's exceptional appreciation of other religions, even while his Torah perspective unsurprisingly obliges him to perceive these religions as imperfect, is, I think, symptomatic of the current perception of him.<br />
<br />
More debatable, perhaps, is Rabbi Steinsaltz's attempt to invoke R. Benamozegh to support his contention that even an authentically realized Noahism must remain "hierarchically" inferior to Judaism. His discussion of the relation between the two is not altogether clear, but he seems to diminish what he calls "the Noahide model" in a way that would be alien to R. Benamozegh --- I shall discuss this matter presently -- though perhaps congenial to a more conventional rabbinical perspective.<br />
<br />
He concludes his article with that most familiar of rabbinical strategies for explaining or excusing Jewish concessions, the "shalom<br />
bayit" formula: "Basically, [Noahism] does not require most religions to give up, or modify the meaning of, such words as 'true' and 'truth'. It provides a basis for conversation among religions without the expectation of compromise. . . . The Noahide approach, in other words, is a formula for no more than peace."<br />
<br />
The decisive difference between Rabbis Benamozegh and Steinsaltz on this matter evoked a paper by Alick Isaacs, "Benamozegh's Tone: A Response to Rabbi Steinsaltz" (Common Knowledge, 2005: 11:48-55). Isaacs expresses gratitude for the distinguished<br />
Jerusalem rabbi's "extraordinary if not absolutely exceptional" assessment of contemporary religions as "adequately monotheist, adequately non-idolatrous, and at least adequately ethical to qualify as compliant with the Noahide laws." But he points out that Rabbi "Benamozegh went well beyond the uninterested recognition that Rabbi Steinsaltz recommends. What is most exceptional, and, for us today exemplary, is Benamozegh's tone."<br />
<br />
==Chapter III: Rabbi Benamozegh's "hierarchical" conception==<br />
<br />
In point of fact, even Benamozegh's undoubtedly "hierarchical" conception of the relation between Judaism and the other nineteenth-century religions is informed by the "tone" to which Isaacs refers: its expressions are affection, respect, regard, even embrace, at least when he speaks of those gentile religions which he believes to be nearest to the fulfillment of Noahism, and to which he therefore feels most akin: Islam and (especially) Christianity. "And now we turn to the followers of the two great messian- isms, Christian and Moslem. It is to Christians in particular that we wish to address a frank and respectful word, and God knows that it is with fear in our heart lest our advances be taken for hypocrisy. No! No impartial and reasonable man can fail to recognize and appreciate, as is appropriate, the exalted worth of these two great religions, more especially of Christianity. There is no Jew worthy of the name who does not rejoice in the great transformation wrought by them in a world formerly defiled. . . .As for ourself, we have never had the experience of hearing the Psalms of David on the lips of a priest without feeling such sensations. The reading of certain passages of the Gospels has never left us unresponsive. The simplicity, grandeur, infinite tenderness, which these pages breathe out overwhelms us to the depths of our soul. . . ." (Israel and Humanity, 50-51.)<br />
<br />
In the same astonishing spirit is a remark by Aime Palliere, who knew Benamozegh well:<br />
<br />
"In the last days of his life, Rabbi Benamozegh enjoyed a reclusive retirement in a verdant quarter of Leghorn. When, each morning at dawn, bound in tefillin and wrapped in his ample tallit, he said his prayers, the sound of the bells in a nearby church reached him with a melodious sweetness which gave all of nature a religious voice, and it seemed that as he heard this call of Catholic bells, the great thinker prayed with a more intense fervor. . . . [Benamozegh] felt in spiritual communion not only with all his Jewish brethren in all countries, worshiping at the same hour, but also with all believers, spread all over the surface of the earth, who, in choosing the first hours of the day for prayer, showed themselves without knowing it to be faithful disciples of the ancient masters of Israel."<br />
(Israel and Humanity, 36.)<br />
<br />
==Chapter IV: R. Benamozegh's impressive, startling, tolerance and universal perspective==<br />
<br />
R. Benamozegh's impressive, indeed startling, tolerance and his altogether universal perspective seem in a sense to reflect the ancient Jewish culture of Italy into which he was born and in which he lived his long life. The famous Latin motto "Nihil humanum me alienum puto" --- "Nothing human is unimportant to me" --- could have been his own. (The saying is ascribed to Terence.) His family were from Morocco, and included distinguished rabbis as well as prosperous merchants. Livorno, where he was born, was the youngest of the major centers of Jewish life in Italy, as well as one of the most creative, dating only from the sixteenth century. (By contrast, the Jewish settlement in Rome is of great antiquity, long antedating the Christian presence there.)<br />
<br />
Livorno in Benamozegh's time was one of the most tolerant places in this relatively tolerant country. It never had a closed ghetto, and by 1800 its population of 5,000 Jews constituted an eighth of its population. Its magnificent synagogue was admired for its beauty throughout Europe, and until its destruction by the Germans, was thought to rival the great synagogue of Amsterdam. (See Luria in Israel and Humanity, 2; David Ruderman, "At the Intersection of Cultures: The Historical Legacy of Italian Jewry," in Gardens and Ghettos, ed. Vivian B. Mann, Berkeley, 1989, 1-23.) This is where R. Benamozegh lived and ministered. One may suppose that the comparatively liberal spirit of the place, together with the millennial acculturation of the Italian Jews, helped him avoid the hostilities as well as the vulnerabilities that afflicted men of comparable rabbinical culture in less favored lands. But, of course, we must not imagine that the genial Italian environment could by itself account for R. Benamozegh's liberal spirit. That<br />
was undoubtedly his own. Italy and Livorno provided the soil in which that spirit could grow and flourish.<br />
<br />
As a boy, we are told, R. Benamozegh was an exceptionally brilliant student of Torah. He was instructed by his uncle, Rabbi Yehudah Coriat, who initiated him into Kabbalah. But he had also a keen interest in secular studies, which he seems to have nourished by self-study -- there is no record of his having attended a university. "His exceptional intelligence," suggests Palliere, "compensated for the lack of any precise method in his self-instruction." (Palliere in Israel and Humanity, 31.) His precocity is attested by his having, at the age of sixteen or seventeen, contributed a preface in Hebrew to Rabbi Coriat's Ma'or Va-Shemesh (Livorno, 1839), a collection of kabbalistic treatises (Palliere in Israel and Humanity, 31-32).<br />
<br />
He was eventually to compose his own works in three languages, chiefly in Italian but also in Hebrew and French. Moshe Idel<br />
has described him as "a very erudite and prolific writer, whose domains of creativity were broad and multifaceted. . . .He was well acquainted with many of the available texts of antiquity, in their Greek or Latin originals and also in translation, and his writings constitute a sui generis type of erudition in Judaism, not only in the nineteenth century." (Idel in Israel and Humanity, 379.) <br />
<br />
His bibliography is extensive, but according to Palliere, writing in 1914, there remained at that time even more works still in<br />
manuscript than had been published. (Palliere in Israel and Humanity, 32.) His principal publications include biblical commentaries (most importantly 'Em La-Mikra, 1862, a five-volume commentary on the Torah); polemical works on the authenticity and importance of Kabbalah ('Eimat Mafgi 'a, 1855, and Ta'am Le-Shad, 1863); comparative ethics (La Morale Juive et La Morale Chretienne, 1867); and historiography (Storia degli Esseni, 1865), among many others. Of a projected work in theology (Teologia Dogmatica e Apologetica) one volume only was published (Dio, 1877) as well as excerpts from other portions of his manuscript, in 1904. Among his unpublished works is a study on the origins of Christian dogma, which the French scholar Josue Jehouda regarded as "of exceptional importance." (Luria in Israel and Humanity, 8-9, and 333, n. 10.)<br />
<br />
This partial survey of his writings reveals abundantly both R.Benamozegh's very wide range of scholarly interest, and his willingness to treat what might seem improbable subjects for a rabbi of Livorno, despite the special features of Italian-Jewish culture to which I have already referred. Indeed, his importance in the Italian rabbinate notwithstanding, his writings were not always welcomed by less unconventional colleagues. Rabbi Benamozegh's Torah commentary 'Em La-Mikra was in fact condemned for heterodoxy by the Orthodox rabbinical establishment of Jerusalem and Damascus, though defended by the author at once in a public letter addressed to these rabbis. (Palliere in Israel and Humanity, 334-335, n. 5.) His situation recalls that of a comparably unconventional, mystically oriented successor two generations later, Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook. Such exceptionally independent rabbis and thinkers seem all too likely sooner or later to agitate their less daring contemporaries.<br />
<br />
==Chapter V: R. Benamozegh's posthumous summa of Jewish thought==<br />
<br />
Israel et l'Humanite (1914), R. Benamozegh's posthumous summa of Jewish thought, is undoubtedly his book which speaks most directly to our own time, and is the principal source of his current, and apparently growing, reputation. It has a curious history. Its editor Palliere, who was in a position to know, tells us that R. Benamozegh worked on it for many years and left, when he died, some 1900 "large pages of compact writing, without paragraphing, editing, or division of any kind." (Palliere in Israel<br />
and Humanity, 37.) Yet a very important part of the work, its Introduction, had been published as early as 1885, well before the author's death in 1900, and sets out concisely the plan as well as the theme of the entire work as it ultimately appeared: " We propose, then, to seek out the universal character of Judaism, in both the speculative and practical domains. Our scheme calls for three principal divisions: God, Man, and Law." (Israel and Humanity, 59.)<br />
<br />
The title of this 1885 Introduction is equally revealing of R. Benamozegh's perspective: "Israel and Humanity; Proof of the Cosmopolitanism in Judaism's Principles, Laws, Worship, Vocation, History, and Ideals." (Israel et l'Humanite; Demonstration du Cosmopolitanisme dans les Dogmes, les Lois, le Culte, la Vocation, l'Histoire, et l'Ideal de l'Hebraisme. Introduction, Leghorn,<br />
1885.) In his epithets "universal" and "cosmopolitan," R. Benamozegh adumbrates the central theme of the book. Judaism (or Hebraism, as he usually prefers to call it) often seems parochial and self-absorbed, and has been so perceived by others, but this is altogether misleading: "[Its particularism] has always deceived, and still deceives, so many persons of good faith, to the point that they are able to see in the religion of Israel only a purely national cult. But they can easily turn from their error if they will accept our invitation to inquire, with us, whether Judaism does not possess the elements of a universal religion. They will then recognize that it indeed contains at its heart, as the flower conceals the fruit, the religion intended for the entire human race, of which the Mosaic law, which seems on the surface so incompatible with that high destiny, is but the husk or outer cover. It is for the preservation and establishment of this universal religion that Judaism has endured, that it has struggled and suffered. It is with and through this<br />
universal religion that Judaism is destined to triumph." (Israel and Humanity, 44.)<br />
<br />
The same idea appears near the end of the book, embodying a corollary metaphor: Israel serves a "priestly" function for "lay" Humanity: "Judaism is really two doctrines in one. There are two laws, two codes of discipline -- in a word, two forms of<br />
religion: the lay law, summarized in the seven precepts of the sons of Noah, and the Mosaic or priestly law, whose code is the Torah. The first was destined for all the human race, the second for Israel alone. . . . It is one Eternal Law, apprehended from<br />
two perspectives." "Priestly" Israel is regarded as fulfilling its mission, as justifying its very existence, by serving the spiritual needs of "lay" Humanity, even as its prototypes, the Kohanim, were essentially exalted functionaries, but functionaries nevertheless, who existed to serve their people. "Such is the Jewish conception of the world. In heaven a single God, father of all men alike;<br />
on earth a family of peoples, among whom Israel is the "first-born", charged with teaching and administering the true religion<br />
of mankind, of which he is priest. This "true religion" is the Law of Noah: It is the one which the human race will embrace in<br />
the days of the Messiah, and which Israel's mission is to preserve and propagate meanwhile." (Israel and Humanity, 53-54.)<br />
<br />
This "priestly" function explains the elaborate cultic obligations of Mosaism: "But as the priestly people, dedicated to the purely religious life, Israel has special duties, peculiar obligations, which are like a kind of monastic law, an ecclesiastical constitution which is Israel's alone by reason of its high duties." (Israel and Humanity, 54.)". " We shall show that in Judaism, universality as ends and particularism as means have always coexisted, and that particularist Judaism has the very special function of serving as trustee and voice for the universal Judaism." (Israel and Humanity, 58.) This service is, perhaps, Israel's raison d'etre: "Far from feeling obliged to convert non-Jews to his practices, [Israel] confines himself to preaching to them that universal religion whose establishment on earth was, in a sense, the purpose of his own existence." (Israel and Humanity, 327.) Rabbi Benamozegh rejects categorically the notion that Israel enjoys any intrinsic superiority over the rest of Humanity. "The image of divinity on earth, the partner of the Creative Spirit, is not the Jew: it is man." (Israel and Humanity, 325.)<br />
<br />
==Chapter VI: Passionate perception of unity==<br />
<br />
This passionate perception of the unity (which implies the essential equality) of all mankind, including Israel, is at the heart of R. Benamozegh's vision. To articulate this vision in traditional Jewish terms, he moved the Noahide doctrine of Israel's relation with Humanity from the margin of Jewish thought to the center. What had been a self-flattering and, in practice, largely conceptual obligation for Jews became, in his powerful conception, the reason for Jewish existence. What had been a God-given but, in practice, largely theoretical obligation for ancient "heathens" became an urgent desideratum for modern "Gentiles".<br />
<br />
Rabbi Benamozegh was certainly cognizant that his grand vision was far from universally understood (let alone embraced) by the<br />
Jews of his day, or perhaps of any other. He puts the matter with delicacy: "No doubt, the entire multitude of Israel were not able to grasp with equal understanding these truths which, even in our own day, remain inaccessible to so many. In the comprehension of every religion, there is a natural gradation, corresponding to the intellectual and spiritual development of the believers. This must be particularly true with respect to Judaism, whose doctrines rise infinitely above the plane of mere intellect. . . .It is enough for the eternal honor of Judaism that this ideal, incomparably superior to all that surrounded it, had been preserved at its heart, and that the voice of its Prophets and sages did not stop proclaiming it, despite all hostile circumstances." (Israel and Humanity, 325.)<br />
<br />
Plato, too, acknowledged that his vision of the just city was an ideal that never was and might well never be. If Rabbi Elijah Benamozegh, the "Plato of Italian Judaism", affirmed his ideal of the way that Israel and Humanity should relate to one another on an equally visionary level, the ideal is not less valuable for that reason. His influence today upon persons of both kinds would seem to justify the vision.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references /></div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=Review_of_Rabbi_Benamozegh_by_JewishIdeas.org&diff=16273Review of Rabbi Benamozegh by JewishIdeas.org2013-02-12T08:44:27Z<p>HaNoahide: Created page with 'Rabbi Eliyahu Benamozegh: Israel and Humanity<ref>[http://www.jewishideas.org/articles/rabbi-eliyahu-benamoz Review of Rabbi Benamozegh] by JewishIdeas.org</ref><br> Friday, Octo…'</p>
<hr />
<div>Rabbi Eliyahu Benamozegh: Israel and Humanity<ref>[http://www.jewishideas.org/articles/rabbi-eliyahu-benamoz Review of Rabbi Benamozegh] by JewishIdeas.org</ref><br><br />
Friday, October 24 2008<br />
<br />
(For many years, Dr. Luria taught medieval European literature and religion at Temple University in Philadelphia , later also teaching in Tokyo. His translation and edition of Rabbi Benamozegh's "Israel and Humanity" was published in 1995 by Paulist Press.)<br />
<br />
==Chapter I==<br />
<br />
Many Jews in our day, like many of our brethren of other tribes, are seeking to mend the fractures that divide us from ourselves and from others, and to find ways to heal the wounds that afflict us only six decades after the Holocaust and the rebirth of Israel. Amid these efforts, an idealistic, scholarly nineteenth-century rabbi from Livorno seems, to some, to provide a beacon of hope and humanity.<br />
<br />
Elijah ben Abraham Benamozegh (1822-1900) was highly respected in his day as one of Italy's most eminent Jewish scholars. (See Encyclopaedia Judaica, s.v. "Benamozegh"; Elijah Benamozegh, Israel and Humanity, trans. and ed. Maxwell Luria, New York: Paulist, 1995, xi-xvii, 1-29, 31-38, 378-402. I have drawn in several instances from material in the Translator's Introduction to this volume.) He served for half a century as rabbi of the important Jewish community of Livorno (Leghorn), where the Piazza Benamozegh now commemorates his name and distinction. R. Benamozegh was (and remains) celebrated as Italy's most articulate proponent of Kabbalah, at a time when Jewish mysticism was widely disdained. In Gershom Scholem's opinion, he and Franz Molitor were "the only two scholars of the age to approach the Kabbalah out of a fundamental sympathy and even affinity for its teachings." (Gershom Scholem, Kabbalah , Jerusalem, 1974, 202. Cited by Moshe Idel in his Appendix to Israel and Humanity, 397.) Later, owing significantly to the effective advocacy of his student and posthumous editor Aime Palliere, it was Benamozegh's persistent support of the Noahide idea and its implications for the spiritual life of all people that brought him most attention, and has<br />
encouraged the translation and republication of his works. (See Israel and Humanity, 18-21 et passim.) Most recently, however, it is the scope of his human sympathy and religious tolerance --- the seemingly effortless way in which Kabbalah's cosmic universality and Noahism's religious universality are somehow linked up in him alongside a scrupulous Orthodox rabbinism --- that have attracted particular attention, and identified him not only as a rare Orthodox rabbi --- "the Plato of Italian Judaism," as he was sometimes called (see Palliere in Israel and Humanity, 31), and "incontestably in the great line of the Sages of Israel" (Emile Touati, quoted by Luria in Israel and Humanity, 8) --- but as a timely and useful thinker as well.<br />
<br />
A brief glance at the Internet reveals how widely R. Benamozegh's ideas are being discussed, in Noahide and Christian as well as in Jewish circles, and how much research is currently being devoted to him. In recent decades, the book of his that has received most attention, Israel et l'Humanite (Israel and Humanity), has been published in Hebrew (1967), Italian (1990), and English (1995) translations (see Luria in Israel and Humanity, xii), and has made a deep impression on the contemporary Noahide movement. His other major work in French, La Morale Juive et la Morale Chretienne (Jewish and Christian Ethics), whose English translation had been published as early as 1873 but had long since gone out of print, was reissued in Jerusalem in 2000.Scholarly papers on R. Benamozegh are appearing, especially in Italy and France. (One of the most important recent essays in English is Moshe Idel's "Kabbalah in Elijah Benamozegh's Thought," which appears as an Appendix in Israel and Humanity, 378-402.) Alessandro Guetta's study Philosophie et Cabale dans la Pensee d'Elie Benamozegh (Padua, 1993), has recently been translated by Helena Kahan as Philosophy and Kabbalah: Elijah Benamozegh and the Reconciliation of Western Thought and Jewish Esotericism, and is scheduled for publication in October 2008 by the State University of New York Press in Albany.<br />
<br />
==Chapter II: Rabbi Steinsaltz's "hierarchical" conception==<br />
<br />
Some current rabbinical literature, too, discloses an awareness of R. Benamozegh. One must note in this connection Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz's remarkable paper, "Peace Without Conciliation: The Irrelevance of 'Toleration' in Judaism" (Common Knowledge , 2005: 11:41-47). Steinsaltz here affirms his opinion, perhaps without parallel in Orthodox rabbinical writings, that the Noahide criterion of monotheism -- the first of the seven universal mitzvot -- is satisfied not only by Islam (an embarras de richesses) but by modern Christianity as well: "By the standards of the Noahide laws, the doctrine of the Trinity is not an idolatrous belief to which Judaism can express an objection." And even, mirabile dictu, by contemporary Buddhism and Hinduism. To be sure, Steinsaltz hedges his revolutionary assertion with a discouraging title and subtitle, and with significant qualifications, especially with respect to what he sees as the difference between "Noahide monotheism" and "Jewish monotheism". But no matter -- the Noahide cat is out of the bag, and this article has --- properly and expectably --- attracted a good deal of attention.<br />
<br />
Steinsaltz's reference to R. Benamozegh comes in his last paragraph: ¿Even Elijah Benamozegh, who was perhaps the rabbinic figure most open toward, most appreciative of, Christianity and Islam, viewed the relation between Judaism and those other religions in hierarchical terms.¿ His acknowledgement here of R. Benamozegh's exceptional appreciation of other religions, even while his Torah perspective unsurprisingly obliges him to perceive these religions as imperfect, is, I think, symptomatic of the current perception of him.<br />
<br />
More debatable, perhaps, is Rabbi Steinsaltz's attempt to invoke R. Benamozegh to support his contention that even an authentically realized Noahism must remain "hierarchically" inferior to Judaism. His discussion of the relation between the two is not altogether clear, but he seems to diminish what he calls "the Noahide model" in a way that would be alien to R. Benamozegh --- I shall discuss this matter presently -- though perhaps congenial to a more conventional rabbinical perspective.<br />
<br />
He concludes his article with that most familiar of rabbinical strategies for explaining or excusing Jewish concessions, the "shalom<br />
bayit" formula: "Basically, [Noahism] does not require most religions to give up, or modify the meaning of, such words as 'true' and 'truth'. It provides a basis for conversation among religions without the expectation of compromise. . . . The Noahide approach, in other words, is a formula for no more than peace."<br />
<br />
The decisive difference between Rabbis Benamozegh and Steinsaltz on this matter evoked a paper by Alick Isaacs, "Benamozegh's Tone: A Response to Rabbi Steinsaltz" (Common Knowledge, 2005: 11:48-55). Isaacs expresses gratitude for the distinguished<br />
Jerusalem rabbi's "extraordinary if not absolutely exceptional" assessment of contemporary religions as "adequately monotheist, adequately non-idolatrous, and at least adequately ethical to qualify as compliant with the Noahide laws." But he points out that Rabbi "Benamozegh went well beyond the uninterested recognition that Rabbi Steinsaltz recommends. What is most exceptional, and, for us today exemplary, is Benamozegh's tone."<br />
<br />
==Chapter III: Rabbi Benamozegh's "hierarchical" conception==<br />
<br />
In point of fact, even Benamozegh's undoubtedly "hierarchical" conception of the relation between Judaism and the other nineteenth-century religions is informed by the "tone" to which Isaacs refers: its expressions are affection, respect, regard, even embrace, at least when he speaks of those gentile religions which he believes to be nearest to the fulfillment of Noahism, and to which he therefore feels most akin: Islam and (especially) Christianity. "And now we turn to the followers of the two great messian- isms, Christian and Moslem. It is to Christians in particular that we wish to address a frank and respectful word, and God knows that it is with fear in our heart lest our advances be taken for hypocrisy. No! No impartial and reasonable man can fail to recognize and appreciate, as is appropriate, the exalted worth of these two great religions, more especially of Christianity. There is no Jew worthy of the name who does not rejoice in the great transformation wrought by them in a world formerly defiled. . . .As for ourself, we have never had the experience of hearing the Psalms of David on the lips of a priest without feeling such sensations. The reading of certain passages of the Gospels has never left us unresponsive. The simplicity, grandeur, infinite tenderness, which these pages breathe out overwhelms us to the depths of our soul. . . ." (Israel and Humanity, 50-51.)<br />
<br />
In the same astonishing spirit is a remark by Aime Palliere, who knew Benamozegh well:<br />
<br />
"In the last days of his life, Rabbi Benamozegh enjoyed a reclusive retirement in a verdant quarter of Leghorn. When, each morning at dawn, bound in tefillin and wrapped in his ample tallit, he said his prayers, the sound of the bells in a nearby church reached him with a melodious sweetness which gave all of nature a religious voice, and it seemed that as he heard this call of Catholic bells, the great thinker prayed with a more intense fervor. . . . [Benamozegh] felt in spiritual communion not only with all his Jewish brethren in all countries, worshiping at the same hour, but also with all believers, spread all over the surface of the earth, who, in choosing the first hours of the day for prayer, showed themselves without knowing it to be faithful disciples of the ancient masters of Israel."<br />
(Israel and Humanity, 36.)<br />
<br />
==Chapter IV: R. Benamozegh's impressive, startling, tolerance and universal perspective==<br />
<br />
R. Benamozegh's impressive, indeed startling, tolerance and his altogether universal perspective seem in a sense to reflect the ancient Jewish culture of Italy into which he was born and in which he lived his long life. The famous Latin motto "Nihil humanum me alienum puto" --- "Nothing human is unimportant to me" --- could have been his own. (The saying is ascribed to Terence.) His family were from Morocco, and included distinguished rabbis as well as prosperous merchants. Livorno, where he was born, was the youngest of the major centers of Jewish life in Italy, as well as one of the most creative, dating only from the sixteenth century. (By contrast, the Jewish settlement in Rome is of great antiquity, long antedating the Christian presence there.)<br />
<br />
Livorno in Benamozegh's time was one of the most tolerant places in this relatively tolerant country. It never had a closed ghetto, and by 1800 its population of 5,000 Jews constituted an eighth of its population. Its magnificent synagogue was admired for its beauty throughout Europe, and until its destruction by the Germans, was thought to rival the great synagogue of Amsterdam. (See Luria in Israel and Humanity, 2; David Ruderman, "At the Intersection of Cultures: The Historical Legacy of Italian Jewry," in Gardens and Ghettos, ed. Vivian B. Mann, Berkeley, 1989, 1-23.) This is where R. Benamozegh lived and ministered. One may suppose that the comparatively liberal spirit of the place, together with the millennial acculturation of the Italian Jews, helped him avoid the hostilities as well as the vulnerabilities that afflicted men of comparable rabbinical culture in less favored lands. But, of course, we must not imagine that the genial Italian environment could by itself account for R. Benamozegh's liberal spirit. That<br />
was undoubtedly his own. Italy and Livorno provided the soil in which that spirit could grow and flourish.<br />
<br />
As a boy, we are told, R. Benamozegh was an exceptionally brilliant student of Torah. He was instructed by his uncle, Rabbi Yehudah Coriat, who initiated him into Kabbalah. But he had also a keen interest in secular studies, which he seems to have nourished by self-study -- there is no record of his having attended a university. "His exceptional intelligence," suggests Palliere, "compensated for the lack of any precise method in his self-instruction." (Palliere in Israel and Humanity, 31.) His precocity is attested by his having, at the age of sixteen or seventeen, contributed a preface in Hebrew to Rabbi Coriat's Ma'or Va-Shemesh (Livorno, 1839), a collection of kabbalistic treatises (Palliere in Israel and Humanity, 31-32).<br />
<br />
He was eventually to compose his own works in three languages, chiefly in Italian but also in Hebrew and French. Moshe Idel<br />
has described him as "a very erudite and prolific writer, whose domains of creativity were broad and multifaceted. . . .He was well acquainted with many of the available texts of antiquity, in their Greek or Latin originals and also in translation, and his writings constitute a sui generis type of erudition in Judaism, not only in the nineteenth century." (Idel in Israel and Humanity, 379.) <br />
<br />
His bibliography is extensive, but according to Palliere, writing in 1914, there remained at that time even more works still in<br />
manuscript than had been published. (Palliere in Israel and Humanity, 32.) His principal publications include biblical commentaries (most importantly 'Em La-Mikra, 1862, a five-volume commentary on the Torah); polemical works on the authenticity and importance of Kabbalah ('Eimat Mafgi 'a, 1855, and Ta'am Le-Shad, 1863); comparative ethics (La Morale Juive et La Morale Chretienne, 1867); and historiography (Storia degli Esseni, 1865), among many others. Of a projected work in theology (Teologia Dogmatica e Apologetica) one volume only was published (Dio, 1877) as well as excerpts from other portions of his manuscript, in 1904. Among his unpublished works is a study on the origins of Christian dogma, which the French scholar Josue Jehouda regarded as "of exceptional importance." (Luria in Israel and Humanity, 8-9, and 333, n. 10.)<br />
<br />
This partial survey of his writings reveals abundantly both R.Benamozegh's very wide range of scholarly interest, and his willingness to treat what might seem improbable subjects for a rabbi of Livorno, despite the special features of Italian-Jewish culture to which I have already referred. Indeed, his importance in the Italian rabbinate notwithstanding, his writings were not always welcomed by less unconventional colleagues. Rabbi Benamozegh's Torah commentary 'Em La-Mikra was in fact condemned for heterodoxy by the Orthodox rabbinical establishment of Jerusalem and Damascus, though defended by the author at once in a public letter addressed to these rabbis. (Palliere in Israel and Humanity, 334-335, n. 5.) His situation recalls that of a comparably unconventional, mystically oriented successor two generations later, Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook. Such exceptionally independent rabbis and thinkers seem all too likely sooner or later to agitate their less daring contemporaries.<br />
<br />
==Chapter V: R. Benamozegh's posthumous summa of Jewish thought==<br />
<br />
Israel et l'Humanite (1914), R. Benamozegh's posthumous summa of Jewish thought, is undoubtedly his book which speaks most directly to our own time, and is the principal source of his current, and apparently growing, reputation. It has a curious history. Its editor Palliere, who was in a position to know, tells us that R. Benamozegh worked on it for many years and left, when he died, some 1900 "large pages of compact writing, without paragraphing, editing, or division of any kind." (Palliere in Israel<br />
and Humanity, 37.) Yet a very important part of the work, its Introduction, had been published as early as 1885, well before the author's death in 1900, and sets out concisely the plan as well as the theme of the entire work as it ultimately appeared: " We propose, then, to seek out the universal character of Judaism, in both the speculative and practical domains. Our scheme calls for three principal divisions: God, Man, and Law." (Israel and Humanity, 59.)<br />
<br />
The title of this 1885 Introduction is equally revealing of R. Benamozegh's perspective: "Israel and Humanity; Proof of the Cosmopolitanism in Judaism's Principles, Laws, Worship, Vocation, History, and Ideals." (Israel et l'Humanite; Demonstration du Cosmopolitanisme dans les Dogmes, les Lois, le Culte, la Vocation, l'Histoire, et l'Ideal de l'Hebraisme. Introduction, Leghorn,<br />
1885.) In his epithets "universal" and "cosmopolitan," R. Benamozegh adumbrates the central theme of the book. Judaism (or Hebraism, as he usually prefers to call it) often seems parochial and self-absorbed, and has been so perceived by others, but this is altogether misleading: "[Its particularism] has always deceived, and still deceives, so many persons of good faith, to the point that they are able to see in the religion of Israel only a purely national cult. But they can easily turn from their error if they will accept our invitation to inquire, with us, whether Judaism does not possess the elements of a universal religion. They will then recognize that it indeed contains at its heart, as the flower conceals the fruit, the religion intended for the entire human race, of which the Mosaic law, which seems on the surface so incompatible with that high destiny, is but the husk or outer cover. It is for the preservation and establishment of this universal religion that Judaism has endured, that it has struggled and suffered. It is with and through this<br />
universal religion that Judaism is destined to triumph." (Israel and Humanity, 44.)<br />
<br />
The same idea appears near the end of the book, embodying a corollary metaphor: Israel serves a "priestly" function for "lay" Humanity: "Judaism is really two doctrines in one. There are two laws, two codes of discipline -- in a word, two forms of<br />
religion: the lay law, summarized in the seven precepts of the sons of Noah, and the Mosaic or priestly law, whose code is the Torah. The first was destined for all the human race, the second for Israel alone. . . . It is one Eternal Law, apprehended from<br />
two perspectives." "Priestly" Israel is regarded as fulfilling its mission, as justifying its very existence, by serving the spiritual needs of "lay" Humanity, even as its prototypes, the Kohanim, were essentially exalted functionaries, but functionaries nevertheless, who existed to serve their people. "Such is the Jewish conception of the world. In heaven a single God, father of all men alike;<br />
on earth a family of peoples, among whom Israel is the "first-born", charged with teaching and administering the true religion<br />
of mankind, of which he is priest. This "true religion" is the Law of Noah: It is the one which the human race will embrace in<br />
the days of the Messiah, and which Israel's mission is to preserve and propagate meanwhile." (Israel and Humanity, 53-54.)<br />
<br />
This "priestly" function explains the elaborate cultic obligations of Mosaism: "But as the priestly people, dedicated to the purely religious life, Israel has special duties, peculiar obligations, which are like a kind of monastic law, an ecclesiastical constitution which is Israel's alone by reason of its high duties." (Israel and Humanity, 54.)". " We shall show that in Judaism, universality as ends and particularism as means have always coexisted, and that particularist Judaism has the very special function of serving as trustee and voice for the universal Judaism." (Israel and Humanity, 58.) This service is, perhaps, Israel's raison d'etre: "Far from feeling obliged to convert non-Jews to his practices, [Israel] confines himself to preaching to them that universal religion whose establishment on earth was, in a sense, the purpose of his own existence." (Israel and Humanity, 327.) Rabbi Benamozegh rejects categorically the notion that Israel enjoys any intrinsic superiority over the rest of Humanity. "The image of divinity on earth, the partner of the Creative Spirit, is not the Jew: it is man." (Israel and Humanity, 325.)<br />
<br />
==Chapter VI: Passionate perception of unity==<br />
<br />
This passionate perception of the unity (which implies the essential equality) of all mankind, including Israel, is at the heart of R. Benamozegh's vision. To articulate this vision in traditional Jewish terms, he moved the Noahide doctrine of Israel's relation with Humanity from the margin of Jewish thought to the center. What had been a self-flattering and, in practice, largely conceptual obligation for Jews became, in his powerful conception, the reason for Jewish existence. What had been a God-given but, in practice, largely theoretical obligation for ancient "heathens" became an urgent desideratum for modern "Gentiles".<br />
<br />
Rabbi Benamozegh was certainly cognizant that his grand vision was far from universally understood (let alone embraced) by the<br />
Jews of his day, or perhaps of any other. He puts the matter with delicacy: "No doubt, the entire multitude of Israel were not able to grasp with equal understanding these truths which, even in our own day, remain inaccessible to so many. In the comprehension of every religion, there is a natural gradation, corresponding to the intellectual and spiritual development of the believers. This must be particularly true with respect to Judaism, whose doctrines rise infinitely above the plane of mere intellect. . . .It is enough for the eternal honor of Judaism that this ideal, incomparably superior to all that surrounded it, had been preserved at its heart, and that the voice of its Prophets and sages did not stop proclaiming it, despite all hostile circumstances." (Israel and Humanity, 325.)<br />
<br />
Plato, too, acknowledged that his vision of the just city was an ideal that never was and might well never be. If Rabbi Elijah Benamozegh, the "Plato of Italian Judaism", affirmed his ideal of the way that Israel and Humanity should relate to one another on an equally visionary level, the ideal is not less valuable for that reason. His influence today upon persons of both kinds would seem to justify the vision.<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references /></div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=Elijah_Benamozegh&diff=16272Elijah Benamozegh2013-02-12T08:38:51Z<p>HaNoahide: /* See also */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Rabbi_Eliyahu_Benamozegh.jpg|thumb|Rabbi Eliyahu Benamozegh]]<br />
The modern Noahide movement was reborn by Rabbi Eliyahu Benamozegh (1822-1900, Italian of Morrocan origin), Kabbalist, philosopher, liberal scholar whose major work Israel and Humanity summarized his thinking on the topic following correspondence with Aime Palliere (1875-1949), a Catholic who desired to convert to Judaism but whom Rabbi Benamozegh convinced to commit to Noahism. Palliere related his own story in The Forgotten Sanctuary. <br />
<br />
Italian rabbi; born at Leghorn in 1822; died there Feb. 6, 1900. His father (Abraham) and mother (Clara), natives of Fez, Morocco, died when Eliyahu was only four years old. The orphan early entered school, where, besides instruction in the elementary sciences, he received tuition in Hebrew, English, and French, excelling in the last-named language. Benamozegh devoted himself later to the study of philosophy and theology, which he endeavored to reconcile with each other.<br />
<br />
At the age of twenty-five he entered upon a commercial career, spending all his leisure in study; but his natural tendency toward science and an active religious life soon caused him to abandon the pursuit of wealth. He then began to publish scientific and apologetic works, in which he revealed a great at tachment to the Jewish religion, exhibiting at the same time a broad and liberal mind. His solicitude for Jewish traditions caused him to defend even the much-decried Cabala. Later, Benamozegh was appointed rabbi and professor of theology at the rabbinical school of his native town; and, notwithstanding his multifarious occupations from that time, he continued to defend Jewish traditions by his pen until his death.<br />
<br />
==View on Noahides==<br />
<br />
:''Main article [[Judaism and Other Religions]]''<br />
<br />
Rabbi Dr. Alan Brill in his "Judaism and Other Religions: An Orthodox perspective" explains:<br />
<br />
Rabbi Elijah Benamozegh did actually embrace the reading of works of other faiths. Rabbi Elijah Benamozegh (1823-1900) was a preacher and essayist in nineteenth-century Italy, who incorporated the new finding of comparative religion in his Biblical commentaries and who wanted to bring Gentiles, even his Christian contemporaries, back to a true universal Monotheism based on the seven Noahide laws.<br />
<br />
In many ways he continues the inclusive-hierarchy model of valuing Jewish monotheism over the trinity and the inclusive-mission model by placing Judaism as the heart of the nations, with the nations following the Noahide laws and the Jews following the commandments. He is most original when he acknowledges the cultural embeddedness of religion and that there is truth in every religion even if their conceptions of monotheism and revelation are deficient. He has theological statements on why Judaism rejects the Trinity, why the New Testament cannot supersede the Sinai revelation, and why Jews accept a progressive revelation in the oral law.<br />
<br />
:The idea of the personality of God necessarily implies that of the unity of substance. …Christianity which possesses a trinity of persons while maintaining the unity of God's substance…might best be called tritheism. <ref>Elijah Benamozegh, Israel and Humanity, translated by Maxwell Luria (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1995), 68.</ref><br />
<br />
:As for those who tell us that Christianity embodies a new revelation, do they not see that if the Christian mysteries were truly a radical innovation, then the entire system of Divine revelation would be overturned?… It could no longer be a question of a unique and perfect Revelation coming, like the material creation, from the sovereign intelligence of God….From the moment that one abandons the notion of a unique revelation -- with the intention of combating Judaism -- there remains only the hypothesis of multiple religions.<br />
<br />
:A glance at the pagan mysteries will enable us to understand very clearly the influence of paganism upon the educated class in Israel.<ref>Ibid, 77.</ref><br />
<br />
:Through dispersion among gentiles, [Judaism] gathers and incorporates the fragments of truth wherever it finds them scattered.<ref>Ibid, 75.</ref><br />
<br />
He finds Christianity wanting on monotheism because it has a trinity, and on revelation because revelation is to be eternal and unique, incapable of being superseded by later revelations. Yet, in his writings, he openly compares and contrasts to Judaism, Christianity, pagan mysteries, Taoism, and Hinduism. He creates a vision of a single world religion with Judaism at the pinnacle and that all religions were needed for the progress of mankind.<br />
<br />
==The Benamozegh Epistles==<br />
<br />
The following are excerpts from Rabbi Benamozegh's letters to Aime Palliere:<ref>[[Aaron Lichtenstein|Lichtenstein, Aaron]]. "The Seven Laws of Noah". New York: The Rabbi Jacob Joseph School Press and Z. Berman Books, 2d ed. 1986., originally published in Palliere, Aime, The Unknown Sanctuary ("Le sanctuaire inconnu"), translated by Louise Waterman Wise. New York: Bloch Publishing Company, 1928.</ref><br />
<br />
:Before all things I wish you to be fully assured that the Noachic religion that you say you heard mentioned by me for the first time (and the majority of people are in your class) is not a discovery that I personally have made, still less is it of my contriving, a sort of more or less happy polemic expedient. No, it is an established fact discussed in every page of our Talmud, generally admitted by our wise men to be little known and much misunderstood. <br />
<br />
:If I understand you correctly, [[Noachism]] seems to you a far distant and superannuated thing, and you ask how, after nineteen centuries of Christianity, after all the religious progress that our Bible and your Gospel represent, I can dream of taking you back to the rudiments of the worship founded after the flood: Is this possible? Yes, and is it possible that you do not see that perpetuity, that future immutability could not exist save on condition that they also existed in the past? There is no doubt that the Bible, aside from the universalistic passion of the prophets, gives the impression that in the carrying out of the compact made with the fathers, God was chiefly concerned with the chosen people, to the exclusion of other peoples. Hence, the accusation leveled against Judaism that it could never rise in its entirety above the conception of a national God. But, can it be imagined for a single moment that after having concerned himself so much with the descendants of Noah, which means with all humanity according to Genesis, God af ter long centuries of waiting would give a special law to the Israelites appointed to be the priests of humanity, and would not have troubled himself in any way about the rest of the human race, rejecting it, until the appearance of Christianity, leaving it totally abandoned, without revelation and without law? And again is it reasonable to conceive that in abolishing the Noachide covenant of Genesis – and where is that abolition to be found - would God during all this long interval leave no other resource to man than the help of his poor reason? This would have been unreasonable, unjust, imprudent, unworthy even of a mortal, for it would entirely undermine faith in the necessity of Revelation. <br />
<br />
:No, no; all this is impossible, and consequently not only has the Noachide law never ceased to be in force but even Israel, with its special code, Mosaism, was created for it, to safeguard it, to teach it, to spread it. The Jews thus exercised, I repeat, the function of priests of humanity, and found themselves subject in this way to the priestly rules which concern them exclusively: the law of Moses.<br />
<br />
:But you ask me, where can one find the code of this Noachic Law, of this universal religion, which is true catholicism? First, admit that if this code did not exist, it would be the fault of God himself not to have established it, or not to have assured its perpetuity. Nobody, indeed, will maintain that the Noachic covenant of Genesis is but an unimportant incident and not a matter of great moment. Further, do you not see that Genesis itself contains precepts given to Noah for all his descendants? This solemn covenant of God with Noah and his offspring is recalled by Isaiah (LIV. 9); it is a covenant sanctioned by the divine promise with the rainbow as pledge of perpetuity. Up to the last pages of the Prophets, Noah is with Daniel and Job, one of the three just men, held up as examples.<br />
<br />
:And yet all this is a small matter compared to the great things which the Talmud reveals to us. This monument of tradition occupies itself in fact with a marked predilection for every thing that concerns the Noachic religion and legislation.<ref>Palliere, op. cit., pages 142-45.</ref><br />
<br />
And another:<br />
<br />
:Not alone does the Talmud comment upon, and develop as far as possible, the Mosaic and prophetic texts on this subject but it opens wide the sources of tradition, rich in many other ways, concerning the ideas of this universal religion. And this, mark well, at the very moment when Israel, its savant in the lead, was exposed to continual persecution and was placed under the ban of humanity. Yes, it was between two scaffolds, between two funeral pyres, that these great sages, these wonderful martyrs, discussed and codified with amazing strength of spirit and with angelic serenity, the religion of humanity, the Noachic law, as much as, and even in greater measure than the Jewish laws themselves.<ref>Ibid., Benamozegh's remark that the Talmud deals with Noahic law in "greater measure" than with Mosaic law is an exaggeration, for of the Babylonian Talmud's twenty-five hundred pages not a hundred mention Noahic law, and only once is there lengthy discussion on Noahism: Sanhedrin 56 through 60.</ref><br />
<br />
:You seem dissatisfied about the antiquity of [[Noachism]], and you do not realize that antiquity is the most infallible sign of truth. Consequently the further back it goes the more it appeals to us. You ask for subsequent developments. Nothing hinders you from achieving them. It is indeed the spirit of the Noachic revelation, as it is of the Mosaic revelation, an t at is t e same Revelation, that it is changeless and progressive at the same time. You want nothing to do with simple deism and you are right a thousand times; I speak of the deism of the philosophers. As to the Noachic deism, it is the pure monotheism of Moses and of our prophets, and in dogmatic definition, there is in reality, and there should be, no distinction between Mosaism and [[Noachism]]. The only difference is of a practical nature. It consists simply in a little more freedom granted according to [[Noachism]] as to metaphysical or even theological speculations. Very far from permitting it to sink into pure rationalism, our tradition imposes upon the Noachic proselyte, called later the proselyte of the gate, one formal condition, the acceptance of this same religion, not at all as the simple fruit of human reason but as the teaching of divine Revelation. What more could you desire?<br />
<br />
:I have just spoken of the proselyte of the gate, that is to say, of the Noachide in person. It is, in truth, with the Noachide himself that the Pentateuch is concerned in specifying that this proselyte is in no way obliged to observe the Mosaic law. This is to say that the Torah obliges us to give to him the animal which is forbidden to us Jews to eat. We must give it to him instead of selling it to the stranger or Gentile or pagan, obvious proof that according to the Pentateuch this proselyte is no longer considered a stranger or pagan, neither is he assimilated to the Jew. So what does he represent, if not precisely this Noachide whose name sounds so strange to your ears? The difficulty which you experience does not hinder the Noachide from becoming a part of the Church Universal; on the contrary, it is the Noachides themselves who make up the faithful, the people of that true catholic church of which Israel is the priest. Israel would have no reason to exist if these people of God did not also exist. What are the priests, I ask you, without the laymen? What would I, a Jew, be if you who are not a Jew were not here as a faithful member of the great Congregation of God in whose services I find myself placed?<ref>Ibid., pages 147-149.</ref><br />
<br />
And another:<br />
<br />
:I have said that you are free to become a priest - I mean a Jewish priest - or to remain a Noachide - that is to say, a layman. But know that in remaining a layman you will be free - and the Jew is not so - to take from the Jewish Law and from Mosaism all that suits your personal religious need in the way of precept, but which would not be an obligation, while the Jew has not the freedom to choose; he is subject to the entire law.<ref>Ibid., page 150.</ref><br />
<br />
And another:<br />
<br />
:I come to the questions you put to me on the subject of the Code of [[Noachism]]. Know that the primitive form of all revelation which continues even after the introduction of the Mosaic Law, and which still exists in our own day in the heart of the Jewish people, the form which biblical teachings have long preserved, comes of oral tradition. The same condition obtained in regard to the first Christian documents, and it is not surprising that the Noachic religion found itself in the same position and that everything connected with it was scattered through the Old Testament, and in the written documents where the ideas of tradition were successively introduced - Mishna<ref>No reference to Noahism as a system is to be found in the Mishna. However, the Noahite as a person is mentioned once, in the following context: " A vow not to give anything to any Son-of -Noah . . . " (Mishna, Nedarim 3:11). So in Chaym Y. Kasousky, Thesaurus Mishnae, Hierosolymis: Massadah, 1958, volume 3, page 1196, "Ben Noah".</ref>, Talmud, Midrash, etc.<br />
<br />
:You would have experienced serious embarrassment if, at the time of the patriarchs ... anyone had asked you where the code of religion was then. Nevertheless, this code existed, and the existence of a religious law constituting a statute to which the Gentiles were bound to conform cannot be contested. <br />
<br />
:It is thus from the deep source of Hebrew tradition, placed in these literary monuments that I have just named, that one must drink without fear of ever exhausting it. This is its glory and this makes it possible to measure the extent of its mission.<ref>Ibid., pages 157-58.</ref><br />
<br />
And another:<br />
<br />
:You seem to see the phantom of individualism rising up against you. Why speak you of isolation? I see all about you an infinite multitude of believers! I grant you that the outward signs may not be visible, but nonetheless you will truly be of the communion of God, the Church of Abraham, which the prophets foretold and which was, in a smaller or larger measure, established in the world by the work of Christianity and of Islam, but above all you will be in the communion of Israel, which must recognize in you the perfectly legitimate representative of [[Noachism]], of the true believers of the future.<ref>Ibid., pages 159-60; these letters charted Palliere's course for the ensuing forty years. His voice, in turn, found many willing ears among Christiam and Jews. His lectures and publications ceased when the Nazis occupied France in 1940 (Alfred Werner, "Aimi Palliere", Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, N.Y., 1942, vol. 8, p. 381). But after the liberation he returned to his writing. His involvement with his work, right up to the time of his death, is described by Roger Rebstock in the preface to the Italian edition of The Unknown Sanctuary: "That November, Aime Palliere turned the manuscript over to the editor .... Several weeks later on the twenty-fourth of December 1949 ... he entered into the light of the Lord he had served . . ." (Palliere, Il santuario sconosciuto. Roffis: Mensile di Israel, 1952, page 7).</ref><br />
<br />
==Publications==<br />
<br />
Benamozegh was the author of the following works: <br />
* ''Emat Mafgia' '' (The Fear of the Opponent), a refutation of Leon de Modena's attacks upon the Cabala, in 2 vols., Leghorn, 1858; <br />
* ''Ger Z.edek.'' (A Righteous Proselyte), critical notes on Targum Onkelos, ib., 1858; <br />
* ''Ner le-David'' (Lamp of David), commentary on the Psalms, published together with the text, ib., 1858; <br />
* ''Em la-Mik.ra'' (Matrix of Scripture), commentary on the Pentateuch containing critical, philological, archeological, and scientific notes on the dogmas, history, laws, and customs of the ancient peoples, published together with the text under the title ''Torat Adonai,'' Leghorn and Paris, 1862-65; <br />
* ''T.a'am la-Shad'' (Arguments for Samuel David []), refutation of Samuel David Luzzatto's dialogue on the Cabala, Leghorn, 1863; (6) ''Mebo Kelali,'' general introduction to the traditions of Judaism, published in ''Ha-Lebanon,'' 1864, pp. 73 et seq.; <br />
* ''Storia degli Esseni,'' Florence, 1865; <br />
* ''Morale Juive et Morale Chre'tienne. Examen Comparatif Suivi de Quelques Re'flexions sur les Principes de l'Islamisme,'' Paris, 1867; <br />
* ''Teologia Dogmatica ed Apologetica,'' Leghorn, 1877; <br />
* ''Le Crime de la Guerre De'nonce' a` I'Humanite','' Paris, 1881 (this work won for its author a medal and honorable mention from the Ligue de la Paix, on the proposition of Jules Simon, Edouard Laboulaye, and Frederic Passy); <br />
* ''Ya'aneh be-Esh'' (He Will Answer Through Fire), discussion of cremation according to the Bible and the Talmud, Leghorn, 1886.<br />
<br />
Besides writing these works, Benamozegh contributed to many periodicals, his more important articles being: ''Spinoza et la Kabbala,'' in ''Univers Israe'lite,'' xix. 36 et seq.; ''La Tradition,'' ib. xxv. 20 et seq.; ''Intorno alla Cabbala,'' in ''Il Vessilo Israelitica,'' xli. 3 et seq.; ''Il Libro di Giobbe,'' in ''Educatore,'' ix. 325 et seq.; ''Dell' Escatologia,'' ib. xxv. 203 et seq.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Lattes, Vita ed Opere di Elia Benamozegh, Leghorn, 1901;<br />
* Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 100;<br />
* De Gubernatis, Dizionario Biografico, p. 125;<br />
* Zeitlin, Bibl. Hebraica, p. 19.S. I. Br.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Aime Palliere]]<br />
* Review of [[Israel and Humanity]] Translated by Maxwell Luria, in the series Classics of Western Spirituality. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1995.<br />
* [[Review of Rabbi Benamozegh by JewishIdeas.org]]<br />
* [http://www.jewishideas.org/articles/rabbi-eliyahu-benamoz "Rabbi Eliyahu Benamozegh: Israel and Humanity"] (article), by Maxwell Luria, <i>The Institute for Jewish Ideas and Ideals</i>, 24 October 2009.<br />
* Alick Isaacs, [http://commonknowledge.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/11/1/48 "Benamozegh's Tone: A Response to Rabbi Steinsaltz"], <i>Common Knowledge</i> 11:48-55, 2005. This is a response to Adin Steinsaltz, [http://commonknowledge.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/11/1/41 "Peace without Conciliation: The Irrelevance of 'Toleration' in Judaism"], <i>Common Knowledge</i> 11:41-47, 2005.<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.hareidi.org/en/index.php/Isra%C3%ABl_et_L%27Humanit%C3%A9 Online text of Rabbi Benamozegh' ''Israël et L'Humanité''] 1914 version, in Hebrew and English. (work in progress)<br />
* [http://www.benamozegh.name/ French version of Rabbi Benamozegh]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Benamozegh Approach]]</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=The_Seven_Noahide_Laws,_Rabbi_Yirmeyahu_Bindman&diff=16101The Seven Noahide Laws, Rabbi Yirmeyahu Bindman2013-01-29T16:22:14Z<p>HaNoahide: </p>
<hr />
<div>As the author of the standard teaching guide to the Seven Noachide Laws of the Jewish Torah for all non-Jews, 'The Seven Colors of the Rainbow' I am glad to send you below and attached information on this concept, endorsed by the US Congress since 1991 as the true universal morality (House Judiciary Resolution 104, Public Law 102-14).<br />
<br />
The Talmudic sage Rabbi Akiva was asked by a Roman lady - not Jewish - "What has your God been doing since He created the world?" and replied, "He sits and arranges marriages."<br />
<br />
Business corporations are Noachide-law entities, derived from a specific Rabbinic decision in the Noachide commandment of laws, and held in being by the non-Jewish government, which is thus responsible for their regulation in the public interest. The Jewish Bet Din cannot create corporations, nor can any Jewish lay body, and the non-Jewish or Israeli courts have jurisdiction on all disputes involving corporate matters.<br />
<br />
Corporations in their present form originated in the Dutch state during its period of collaboration with the Jewish community in the 17th century. This was the first appearance of a legal situation designed for Jews and non-Jews to work and invest together in the same economy. The system of independent banking, or free capital market, appeared at the same time and place, when notice came that the Noachide law allows non-Jews to take interest on loans to each other, in contrast to the medieval church prohibition.<br />
<br />
Before the French Revolution each Jewish community was given a corporate status by the non-Jewish government for tax purposes, which caused it to function as a business corporation, formally almost identical to the socio-religious corporate American colonies of the time, and when this was abolished Jewish interests re-founded it as a single entity in the Land of Israel as the 'state' we have today.<br />
<br />
Non-Jews are enjoined under the Commandment of Laws to give charitable donations to each other, so as to allay resentment and confrontation in society generally, and create a climate where disputes can be peacefully resolved without having to go to court.<br />
<br />
The Noachide law has no war of religion, no imperative to conquer unbelievers in the name of the Seven Laws, and non-Jews are not commanded to fight. Non-Jewish warfare is solely to ensure proper functioning legality in accordance with the Commandment of Laws.<br />
<br />
Each non-Jewish nation is empowered to conduct its Noachide legal affairs according to its own pathways, and this is the concept of 'nimuseihem', or 'their customs', the autonomy of the non-Jewish nations in their laws. Nevertheless there are certain topics that can only be decided by the Rabbinic level, such as the validity of the corporate law, and other guiding principles that cannot be transgressed. Even though the law often allows individuals to contract to exclude legal provisions, many people falsely assume that this also applies to the basic spiritual laws of the creation.<br />
<br />
Sincerely,<br><br />
Yirmeyahu Bindman.<br />
<br />
==The Seven Noahide Laws==<br />
<br />
THE SEVEN NOACHIDE LAWS.<br><br />
[[Rabbi Yirmeyahu Bindman]].<br />
<br />
It is well known that the Jewish faith does not seek to make converts, and so it is generally supposed that since the Jewish people do not want to make other people into Jews, they are happy just to be left alone. The world is often very surprised to discover that the Jewish faith includes a complete provision for all non-Jews, regardless of race, social class or national origin, perfectly attuned to their needs, and deriving from the same source in Divine revelation through the prophecy of Moses, without any intermediary whatsoever. Only the true universal faith of the Jews regularly offers something to those who are not its members, and this is its sign of authenticity.<br />
<br />
This provision is known as the Noachide Laws. Though the first man and his wife, Adam and Eve, were commanded to observe them, they emerged fully only after Noah had survived the flood that wiped away violent sinners whose wrongdoings had engulfed the world in his time. The ancestors of the Jewish people were also commanded in them until they were given the whole Torah at Mount Sinai, and they were then reaffirmed through Moses for all the other nations.<br />
<br />
The laws are all prohibitions, unlike those of the Jewish people who have affirmative commandments, but they are not intended to make life dull or restricted. They point out what the good and true path should be, and with this path all moral necessities for the non-Jews are established, without need for any other philosophy, scientific discovery or change in government. All relationships between Jews and non-Jews are likewise explained, both in Israel and in other countries.<br />
<br />
===Sexual transgression===<br />
<br />
All people originate from sexual relations, and so the laws that govern them are our most basic ‘constitution’, testifying to the Divine origin of humankind. Non-Jews are not commanded to marry, but they are encouraged to do so, and they are forbidden to have relations with the wife of another man. Male homosexuality, incest and bestial relations are also forbidden under the same heading, even though the desires for them are very different. Jews and non-Jews are forbidden to each other, because of the different origin of their respective commandments. When these laws are observed, then human relations of all kinds are enhanced by the Divine sanction, and love increases throughout the world.<br />
<br />
===Murder===<br />
<br />
Though the reasons for sexual prohibitions may be mysterious, most people if asked what laws they would make to govern the world would immediately say that on no account must illegal bloodshed be allowed to go unpunished. Human life is a sacred trust, and can only be taken with legal sanction. The murderer is executed by decapitation, at the sentence of the duly authorized sovereign court only. Protection is extended to the unborn, and the details of any abortion case must be closely studied according to the law. War action is subject to strict security standards, at the order of a lawful regime. It is rare for any person to take life in truly wanton circumstances, because of instinctive recognition of its value, and this recognition must be taken up to the level of reckoning that the spiritual law requires.<br />
<br />
===Theft===<br />
<br />
The first man and woman transgressed the Noachide prohibition of theft by eating the fruit which had been forbidden to them, and this is still a Divine provision for non-Jews regarding all property in the hands of others. Property ownership is underwritten by Divine law for all humanity, and is not just a matter for an aggrieved individual to settle for himself. Respect for property rights is the basis for generosity with possessions, and for business dealings that lead the world through its use and traffic of goods to its final destiny. This brings moral satisfaction in the workplace, and the fostering of ethics in this area is a prime need for our society.<br />
<br />
===Idolatry===<br />
<br />
If the worship of entities other than the Creator had not been forbidden by His express command, then people would be free to choose what to worship, just as they choose their own personal friends. However the whole area of relations between humanity and its Creator has been placed under specific requirements, namely that only His truth and unity should be the subject of belief, worship and philosophy. His revelation has two levels, the one in nature for ordinary reckoning, and the other through prophecy on Mount Sinai for the moral law. All non-Jews derive their true religious fulfillment from this latter source, and any reference to an intermediary causes error and loss of morality. There is no need for non-Jews to form associations for Noachide observance and prayer, but they may do so if they wish.<br />
<br />
===Cursing the Name===<br />
<br />
The power of speech distinguishes humanity from all other species, and this distinction leads to the specific human prohibition not to use speech for cursing the Creator, because it shows ingratitude for his kindness. This commandment pairs with the previous one, showing that the Divine rulership and the Divine love go together at all times and places, no matter how great the difficulties may seem. Jews and non-Jews are commanded in the same verse in this respect, showing how in the Messianic times all of humankind will join together in voicing praise for the Creator. All other misuses of speech, such as gossip, obscenity and lies, are indicated in this commandment as something to avoid, just as prayer and words of Torah are desirable so that speech will become truly Divine.<br />
<br />
===Eating the limb of a living animal===<br />
<br />
Though it may seem far-fetched to think of eating meat from a living creature, the intent behind this prohibition is to safeguard the human sexual integrity. The connection between eating and sexuality is well known, and it is the sexual drive for consumption of the ‘heat of life’ that leads to the kind of greed that damages reproduction. The Noachide Law teaches us that this is rectified by being careful to eat only meat from an animal that is fully dead, and this is by no means always the case in our factory society where slaughterhouses handle meat animals quickly and carelessly, sometimes only stunning them before cutting them up for sale. Care in this observance fosters all requirements for the love of nature and the preservation of the environment, and safeguards the passage of souls as manifested in the life and consumption of food animals until the ultimate destiny of the world.<br />
<br />
===System of justice===<br />
<br />
The non-Jewish nations of the world are commanded to avoid the state of anarchy by assuming and exercising the sovereign jurisdiction, to maintain courts that punish offenders by due process of law, and that provide civil redress in society. The Noachide Laws themselves form the basis of the criminal code, but each nation may make civil laws as it sees fit within the general guidelines. This provision does not apply within the Land of Israel, where the sovereign power is in the hands of the Jewish people, and they judge non-Jews of any nationality living or visiting there under these same Noachide Laws. <br />
<br />
Corporations are held in being by the sovereign power through the enactment of corporate law, which is empowered by this commandment. The sovereign power is responsible for regulating these corporations in the public interest, and ensuring their conformity with all aspects of the law. Thus Communism and Fascism are in breach of the spiritual law because of their lack of this regulation. Non-Jews are obligated to seek reconciliation rather than take their disputes straight to court, and this in turn obligates them to give charitable donations to the needy so as to foster reconciliation in general.<br />
<br />
The Rabbis of the Talmud say, ‘War comes to the world through the delay of justice, the perversion of justice, and the teaching of Torah out of accordance with its legal meaning.’ When all processes of law are rectified in this way, with good government applied to sustain them, functioning in Divine integrity, then grievances are properly handled and true peace emerges into the light of day. This is among the recognitions of the United States Congress in its Declaration endorsing the Noachide Laws (H.J. Res. 104, Public Law 102-14, March 1990 and subsequently), based on long historic understanding of the Jewish people and the Torah.<br />
<br />
Book explanation by Rabbi Bindman:<br><br />
‘The Seven Colors of the Rainbow’<br><br />
Resource Publications Inc., S. Jose CA<br />
<br />
Copyright &copy; 2013, Rabbi Yirmeyahu Bindman<br />
<br />
==Endnotes==<br />
<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
[[Category:Chabad Approach]]</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=The_Seven_Noahide_Laws,_Rabbi_Yirmeyahu_Bindman&diff=16100The Seven Noahide Laws, Rabbi Yirmeyahu Bindman2013-01-28T11:05:20Z<p>HaNoahide: /* Theft */</p>
<hr />
<div>As the author of the standard teaching guide to the Seven Noachide Laws of the Jewish Torah for all non-Jews, 'The Seven Colors of the Rainbow' I am glad to send you below and attached information on this concept, endorsed by the US Congress since 1991 as the true universal morality (House Judiciary Resolution 104, Public Law 102-14).<br />
<br />
The Talmudic sage Rabbi Akiva was asked by a Roman lady - not Jewish - "What has your God been doing since He created the world?" and replied, "He sits and arranges marriages."<br />
<br />
Business corporations are Noachide-law entities, derived from a specific Rabbinic decision in the Noachide commandment of laws, and held in being by the non-Jewish government, which is thus responsible for their regulation in the public interest. The Jewish Bet Din cannot create corporations, nor can any Jewish lay body, and the non-Jewish or Israeli courts have jurisdiction on all disputes involving corporate matters.<br />
<br />
Corporations in their present form originated in the Dutch state during its period of collaboration with the Jewish community in the 17th century. This was the first appearance of a legal situation designed for Jews and non-Jews to work and invest together in the same economy. The system of independent banking, or free capital market, appeared at the same time and place, when notice came that the Noachide law allows non-Jews to take interest on loans to each other, in contrast to the medieval church prohibition.<br />
<br />
Before the French Revolution each Jewish community was given a corporate status by the non-Jewish government for tax purposes, which caused it to function as a business corporation, formally almost identical to the socio-religious corporate American colonies of the time, and when this was abolished Jewish interests re-founded it as a single entity in the Land of Israel as the 'state' we have today.<br />
<br />
Non-Jews are enjoined under the Commandment of Laws to give charitable donations to each other, so as to allay resentment and confrontation in society generally, and create a climate where disputes can be peacefully resolved without having to go to court.<br />
<br />
The Noachide law has no war of religion, no imperative to conquer unbelievers in the name of the Seven Laws, and non-Jews are not commanded to fight. Non-Jewish warfare is solely to ensure proper functioning legality in accordance with the Commandment of Laws.<br />
<br />
Each non-Jewish nation is empowered to conduct its Noachide legal affairs according to its own pathways, and this is the concept of 'nimuseihem', or 'their customs', the autonomy of the non-Jewish nations in their laws. Nevertheless there are certain topics that can only be decided by the Rabbinic level, such as the validity of the corporate law, and other guiding principles that cannot be transgressed. Even though the law often allows individuals to contract to exclude legal provisions, many people falsely assume that this also applies to the basic spiritual laws of the creation.<br />
<br />
Sincerely,<br><br />
Yirmeyahu Bindman.<br />
<br />
==The Seven Noahide Laws==<br />
<br />
THE SEVEN NOACHIDE LAWS.<br><br />
[[Rabbi Yirmeyahu Bindman]].<br />
<br />
It is well known that the Jewish faith does not seek to make converts, and so it is generally supposed that since the Jewish people do not want to make other people into Jews, they are happy just to be left alone. The world is often very surprised to discover that the Jewish faith includes a complete provision for all non-Jews, regardless of race, social class or national origin, perfectly attuned to their needs, and deriving from the same source in Divine revelation through the prophecy of Moses, without any intermediary whatsoever. Only the true universal faith of the Jews regularly offers something to those who are not its members, and this is its sign of authenticity.<br />
<br />
This provision is known as the Noachide Laws. Though the first man and his wife, Adam and Eve, were commanded to observe them, they emerged fully only after Noah had survived the flood that wiped away violent sinners whose wrongdoings had engulfed the world in his time. The ancestors of the Jewish people were also commanded in them until they were given the whole Torah at Mount Sinai, and they were then reaffirmed through Moses for all the other nations.<br />
<br />
The laws are all prohibitions, unlike those of the Jewish people who have affirmative commandments, but they are not intended to make life dull or restricted. They point out what the good and true path should be, and with this path all moral necessities for the non-Jews are established, without need for any other philosophy, scientific discovery or change in government. All relationships between Jews and non-Jews are likewise explained, both in Israel and in other countries.<br />
<br />
===Sexual transgression===<br />
<br />
All people originate from sexual relations, and so the laws that govern them are our most basic ‘constitution’, testifying to the Divine origin of humankind. Non-Jews are not commanded to marry, but they are encouraged to do so, and they are forbidden to have relations with the wife of another man. Male homosexuality, incest and bestial relations are also forbidden under the same heading, even though the desires for them are very different. Jews and non-Jews are forbidden to each other, because of the different origin of their respective commandments. When these laws are observed, then human relations of all kinds are enhanced by the Divine sanction, and love increases throughout the world.<br />
<br />
===Murder===<br />
<br />
Though the reasons for sexual prohibitions may be mysterious, most people if asked what laws they would make to govern the world would immediately say that on no account must illegal bloodshed be allowed to go unpunished. Human life is a sacred trust, and can only be taken with legal sanction. The murderer is executed by decapitation, at the sentence of the duly authorized sovereign court only. Protection is extended to the unborn, and the details of any abortion case must be closely studied according to the law. War action is subject to strict security standards, at the order of a lawful regime. It is rare for any person to take life in truly wanton circumstances, because of instinctive recognition of its value, and this recognition must be taken up to the level of reckoning that the spiritual law requires.<br />
<br />
===Theft===<br />
<br />
The first man and woman transgressed the Noachide prohibition of theft by eating the fruit which had been forbidden to them, and this is still a Divine provision for non-Jews regarding all property in the hands of others. Property ownership is underwritten by Divine law for all humanity, and is not just a matter for an aggrieved individual to settle for himself. Respect for property rights is the basis for generosity with possessions, and for business dealings that lead the world through its use and traffic of goods to its final destiny. This brings moral satisfaction in the workplace, and the fostering of ethics in this area is a prime need for our society.<br />
<br />
===Idolatry===<br />
<br />
If the worship of entities other than the Creator had not been forbidden by His express command, then people would be free to choose what to worship, just as they choose their own personal friends. However the whole area of relations between humanity and its Creator has been placed under specific requirements, namely that only His truth and unity should be the subject of belief, worship and philosophy. His revelation has two levels, the one in nature for ordinary reckoning, and the other through prophecy on Mount Sinai for the moral law. All non-Jews derive their true religious fulfillment from this latter source, and any reference to an intermediary causes error and loss of morality. There is no need for non-Jews to form associations for Noachide observance and prayer, but they may do so if they wish.<br />
<br />
===Cursing the Name===<br />
<br />
The power of speech distinguishes humanity from all other species, and this distinction leads to the specific human prohibition not to use speech for cursing the Creator, because it shows ingratitude for his kindness. This commandment pairs with the previous one, showing that the Divine rulership and the Divine love go together at all times and places, no matter how great the difficulties may seem. Jews and non-Jews are commanded in the same verse in this respect, showing how in the Messianic times all of humankind will join together in voicing praise for the Creator. All other misuses of speech, such as gossip, obscenity and lies, are indicated in this commandment as something to avoid, just as prayer and words of Torah are desirable so that speech will become truly Divine.<br />
<br />
===Eating the limb of a living animal===<br />
<br />
Though it may seem far-fetched to think of eating meat from a living creature, the intent behind this prohibition is to safeguard the human sexual integrity. The connection between eating and sexuality is well known, and it is the sexual drive for consumption of the ‘heat of life’ that leads to the kind of greed that damages reproduction. The Noachide Law teaches us that this is rectified by being careful to eat only meat from an animal that is fully dead, and this is by no means always the case in our factory society where slaughterhouses handle meat animals quickly and carelessly, sometimes only stunning them before cutting them up for sale. Care in this observance fosters all requirements for the love of nature and the preservation of the environment, and safeguards the passage of souls as manifested in the life and consumption of food animals until the ultimate destiny of the world.<br />
<br />
===System of justice===<br />
<br />
The non-Jewish nations of the world are commanded to avoid the state of anarchy by assuming and exercising the sovereign jurisdiction, to maintain courts that punish offenders by due process of law, and that provide civil redress in society. The Noachide Laws themselves form the basis of the criminal code, but each nation may make civil laws as it sees fit within the general guidelines. This provision does not apply within the Land of Israel, where the sovereign power is in the hands of the Jewish people, and they judge non-Jews of any nationality living or visiting there under these same Noachide Laws. <br />
<br />
Corporations are held in being by the sovereign power through the enactment of corporate law, which is empowered by this commandment. The sovereign power is responsible for regulating these corporations in the public interest, and ensuring their conformity with all aspects of the law. Thus Communism and Fascism are in breach of the spiritual law because of their lack of this regulation. Non-Jews are obligated to seek reconciliation rather than take their disputes straight to court, and this in turn obligates them to give charitable donations to the needy so as to foster reconciliation in general.<br />
<br />
The Rabbis of the Talmud say, ‘War comes to the world through the delay of justice, the perversion of justice, and the teaching of Torah out of accordance with its legal meaning.’ When all processes of law are rectified in this way, with good government applied to sustain them, functioning in Divine integrity, then grievances are properly handled and true peace emerges into the light of day. This is among the recognitions of the United States Congress in its Declaration endorsing the Noachide Laws (H.J. Res. 104, Public Law 102-14, March 1990 and subsequently), based on long historic understanding of the Jewish people and the Torah.<br />
<br />
Book explanation by Rabbi Bindman:<br><br />
‘The Seven Colors of the Rainbow’<br><br />
Resource Publications Inc., S. Jose CA<br />
<br />
Copyright &copy; 2013, Rabbi Yirmeyahu Bindman<br />
<br />
==Endnotes==<br />
<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
[[Category:Rambam Approach]]</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=The_Seven_Noahide_Laws,_Rabbi_Yirmeyahu_Bindman&diff=16099The Seven Noahide Laws, Rabbi Yirmeyahu Bindman2013-01-28T11:04:57Z<p>HaNoahide: </p>
<hr />
<div>As the author of the standard teaching guide to the Seven Noachide Laws of the Jewish Torah for all non-Jews, 'The Seven Colors of the Rainbow' I am glad to send you below and attached information on this concept, endorsed by the US Congress since 1991 as the true universal morality (House Judiciary Resolution 104, Public Law 102-14).<br />
<br />
The Talmudic sage Rabbi Akiva was asked by a Roman lady - not Jewish - "What has your God been doing since He created the world?" and replied, "He sits and arranges marriages."<br />
<br />
Business corporations are Noachide-law entities, derived from a specific Rabbinic decision in the Noachide commandment of laws, and held in being by the non-Jewish government, which is thus responsible for their regulation in the public interest. The Jewish Bet Din cannot create corporations, nor can any Jewish lay body, and the non-Jewish or Israeli courts have jurisdiction on all disputes involving corporate matters.<br />
<br />
Corporations in their present form originated in the Dutch state during its period of collaboration with the Jewish community in the 17th century. This was the first appearance of a legal situation designed for Jews and non-Jews to work and invest together in the same economy. The system of independent banking, or free capital market, appeared at the same time and place, when notice came that the Noachide law allows non-Jews to take interest on loans to each other, in contrast to the medieval church prohibition.<br />
<br />
Before the French Revolution each Jewish community was given a corporate status by the non-Jewish government for tax purposes, which caused it to function as a business corporation, formally almost identical to the socio-religious corporate American colonies of the time, and when this was abolished Jewish interests re-founded it as a single entity in the Land of Israel as the 'state' we have today.<br />
<br />
Non-Jews are enjoined under the Commandment of Laws to give charitable donations to each other, so as to allay resentment and confrontation in society generally, and create a climate where disputes can be peacefully resolved without having to go to court.<br />
<br />
The Noachide law has no war of religion, no imperative to conquer unbelievers in the name of the Seven Laws, and non-Jews are not commanded to fight. Non-Jewish warfare is solely to ensure proper functioning legality in accordance with the Commandment of Laws.<br />
<br />
Each non-Jewish nation is empowered to conduct its Noachide legal affairs according to its own pathways, and this is the concept of 'nimuseihem', or 'their customs', the autonomy of the non-Jewish nations in their laws. Nevertheless there are certain topics that can only be decided by the Rabbinic level, such as the validity of the corporate law, and other guiding principles that cannot be transgressed. Even though the law often allows individuals to contract to exclude legal provisions, many people falsely assume that this also applies to the basic spiritual laws of the creation.<br />
<br />
Sincerely,<br><br />
Yirmeyahu Bindman.<br />
<br />
==The Seven Noahide Laws==<br />
<br />
THE SEVEN NOACHIDE LAWS.<br><br />
[[Rabbi Yirmeyahu Bindman]].<br />
<br />
It is well known that the Jewish faith does not seek to make converts, and so it is generally supposed that since the Jewish people do not want to make other people into Jews, they are happy just to be left alone. The world is often very surprised to discover that the Jewish faith includes a complete provision for all non-Jews, regardless of race, social class or national origin, perfectly attuned to their needs, and deriving from the same source in Divine revelation through the prophecy of Moses, without any intermediary whatsoever. Only the true universal faith of the Jews regularly offers something to those who are not its members, and this is its sign of authenticity.<br />
<br />
This provision is known as the Noachide Laws. Though the first man and his wife, Adam and Eve, were commanded to observe them, they emerged fully only after Noah had survived the flood that wiped away violent sinners whose wrongdoings had engulfed the world in his time. The ancestors of the Jewish people were also commanded in them until they were given the whole Torah at Mount Sinai, and they were then reaffirmed through Moses for all the other nations.<br />
<br />
The laws are all prohibitions, unlike those of the Jewish people who have affirmative commandments, but they are not intended to make life dull or restricted. They point out what the good and true path should be, and with this path all moral necessities for the non-Jews are established, without need for any other philosophy, scientific discovery or change in government. All relationships between Jews and non-Jews are likewise explained, both in Israel and in other countries.<br />
<br />
===Sexual transgression===<br />
<br />
All people originate from sexual relations, and so the laws that govern them are our most basic ‘constitution’, testifying to the Divine origin of humankind. Non-Jews are not commanded to marry, but they are encouraged to do so, and they are forbidden to have relations with the wife of another man. Male homosexuality, incest and bestial relations are also forbidden under the same heading, even though the desires for them are very different. Jews and non-Jews are forbidden to each other, because of the different origin of their respective commandments. When these laws are observed, then human relations of all kinds are enhanced by the Divine sanction, and love increases throughout the world.<br />
<br />
===Murder===<br />
<br />
Though the reasons for sexual prohibitions may be mysterious, most people if asked what laws they would make to govern the world would immediately say that on no account must illegal bloodshed be allowed to go unpunished. Human life is a sacred trust, and can only be taken with legal sanction. The murderer is executed by decapitation, at the sentence of the duly authorized sovereign court only. Protection is extended to the unborn, and the details of any abortion case must be closely studied according to the law. War action is subject to strict security standards, at the order of a lawful regime. It is rare for any person to take life in truly wanton circumstances, because of instinctive recognition of its value, and this recognition must be taken up to the level of reckoning that the spiritual law requires.<br />
<br />
===Theft===<br />
<br />
The first man and woman transgressed the Noachide prohibition of theft by eating the fruit which had been forbidden to them, and this is still a Divine provision for non-Jews regarding all property in the hands of others. Property ownership is underwritten by Divine law for all humanity, and is not just a matter for an aggrieved individual to settle for himself. Respect for property rights is the basis for generosity with possessions, and for business dealings that lead the world through its use and traffic of goods to its final destiny. This brings moral satisfaction in the workplace, and the fostering of ethics in this area is a prime need for our society.<br />
<br />
===Idolatry===<br />
<br />
If the worship of entities other than the Creator had not been forbidden by His express command, then people would be free to choose what to worship, just as they choose their own personal friends. However the whole area of relations between humanity and its Creator has been placed under specific requirements, namely that only His truth and unity should be the subject of belief, worship and philosophy. His revelation has two levels, the one in nature for ordinary reckoning, and the other through prophecy on Mount Sinai for the moral law. All non-Jews derive their true religious fulfillment from this latter source, and any reference to an intermediary causes error and loss of morality. There is no need for non-Jews to form associations for Noachide observance and prayer, but they may do so if they wish.<br />
<br />
===Cursing the Name===<br />
<br />
The power of speech distinguishes humanity from all other species, and this distinction leads to the specific human prohibition not to use speech for cursing the Creator, because it shows ingratitude for his kindness. This commandment pairs with the previous one, showing that the Divine rulership and the Divine love go together at all times and places, no matter how great the difficulties may seem. Jews and non-Jews are commanded in the same verse in this respect, showing how in the Messianic times all of humankind will join together in voicing praise for the Creator. All other misuses of speech, such as gossip, obscenity and lies, are indicated in this commandment as something to avoid, just as prayer and words of Torah are desirable so that speech will become truly Divine.<br />
<br />
===Eating the limb of a living animal===<br />
<br />
Though it may seem far-fetched to think of eating meat from a living creature, the intent behind this prohibition is to safeguard the human sexual integrity. The connection between eating and sexuality is well known, and it is the sexual drive for consumption of the ‘heat of life’ that leads to the kind of greed that damages reproduction. The Noachide Law teaches us that this is rectified by being careful to eat only meat from an animal that is fully dead, and this is by no means always the case in our factory society where slaughterhouses handle meat animals quickly and carelessly, sometimes only stunning them before cutting them up for sale. Care in this observance fosters all requirements for the love of nature and the preservation of the environment, and safeguards the passage of souls as manifested in the life and consumption of food animals until the ultimate destiny of the world.<br />
<br />
===System of justice===<br />
<br />
The non-Jewish nations of the world are commanded to avoid the state of anarchy by assuming and exercising the sovereign jurisdiction, to maintain courts that punish offenders by due process of law, and that provide civil redress in society. The Noachide Laws themselves form the basis of the criminal code, but each nation may make civil laws as it sees fit within the general guidelines. This provision does not apply within the Land of Israel, where the sovereign power is in the hands of the Jewish people, and they judge non-Jews of any nationality living or visiting there under these same Noachide Laws. <br />
<br />
Corporations are held in being by the sovereign power through the enactment of corporate law, which is empowered by this commandment. The sovereign power is responsible for regulating these corporations in the public interest, and ensuring their conformity with all aspects of the law. Thus Communism and Fascism are in breach of the spiritual law because of their lack of this regulation. Non-Jews are obligated to seek reconciliation rather than take their disputes straight to court, and this in turn obligates them to give charitable donations to the needy so as to foster reconciliation in general.<br />
<br />
The Rabbis of the Talmud say, ‘War comes to the world through the delay of justice, the perversion of justice, and the teaching of Torah out of accordance with its legal meaning.’ When all processes of law are rectified in this way, with good government applied to sustain them, functioning in Divine integrity, then grievances are properly handled and true peace emerges into the light of day. This is among the recognitions of the United States Congress in its Declaration endorsing the Noachide Laws (H.J. Res. 104, Public Law 102-14, March 1990 and subsequently), based on long historic understanding of the Jewish people and the Torah.<br />
<br />
Book explanation by Rabbi Bindman:<br><br />
‘The Seven Colors of the Rainbow’<br><br />
Resource Publications Inc., S. Jose CA<br />
<br />
Copyright &copy; 2013, Rabbi Yirmeyahu Bindman<br />
<br />
==Endnotes==<br />
<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
[[Category:Rambam Approach]]</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=The_Seven_Noahide_Laws,_Rabbi_Yirmeyahu_Bindman&diff=16098The Seven Noahide Laws, Rabbi Yirmeyahu Bindman2013-01-28T11:04:27Z<p>HaNoahide: </p>
<hr />
<div>As the author of the standard teaching guide to the Seven Noachide Laws of the Jewish Torah for all non-Jews, 'The Seven Colors of the Rainbow' I am glad to send you below and attached information on this concept, endorsed by the US Congress since 1991 as the true universal morality (House Judiciary Resolution 104, Public Law 102-14).<br />
<br />
The Talmudic sage Rabbi Akiva was asked by a Roman lady - not Jewish - "What has your God been doing since He created the world?" and replied, "He sits and arranges marriages."<br />
<br />
Business corporations are Noachide-law entities, derived from a specific Rabbinic decision in the Noachide commandment of laws, and held in being by the non-Jewish government, which is thus responsible for their regulation in the public interest. The Jewish Bet Din cannot create corporations, nor can any Jewish lay body, and the non-Jewish or Israeli courts have jurisdiction on all disputes involving corporate matters.<br />
<br />
Corporations in their present form originated in the Dutch state during its period of collaboration with the Jewish community in the 17th century. This was the first appearance of a legal situation designed for Jews and non-Jews to work and invest together in the same economy. The system of independent banking, or free capital market, appeared at the same time and place, when notice came that the Noachide law allows non-Jews to take interest on loans to each other, in contrast to the medieval church prohibition.<br />
<br />
Before the French Revolution each Jewish community was given a corporate status by the non-Jewish government for tax purposes, which caused it to function as a business corporation, formally almost identical to the socio-religious corporate American colonies of the time, and when this was abolished Jewish interests re-founded it as a single entity in the Land of Israel as the 'state' we have today.<br />
<br />
Non-Jews are enjoined under the Commandment of Laws to give charitable donations to each other, so as to allay resentment and confrontation in society generally, and create a climate where disputes can be peacefully resolved without having to go to court.<br />
<br />
The Noachide law has no war of religion, no imperative to conquer unbelievers in the name of the Seven Laws, and non-Jews are not commanded to fight. Non-Jewish warfare is solely to ensure proper functioning legality in accordance with the Commandment of Laws.<br />
<br />
Each non-Jewish nation is empowered to conduct its Noachide legal affairs according to its own pathways, and this is the concept of 'nimuseihem', or 'their customs', the autonomy of the non-Jewish nations in their laws. Nevertheless there are certain topics that can only be decided by the Rabbinic level, such as the validity of the corporate law, and other guiding principles that cannot be transgressed. Even though the law often allows individuals to contract to exclude legal provisions, many people falsely assume that this also applies to the basic spiritual laws of the creation.<br />
<br />
Sincerely,<br><br />
Yirmeyahu Bindman.<br />
<br />
==The Seven Noahide Laws==<br />
<br />
THE SEVEN NOACHIDE LAWS.<br><br />
[[Rabbi Yirmeyahu Bindman]].<br />
<br />
It is well known that the Jewish faith does not seek to make converts, and so it is generally supposed that since the Jewish people do not want to make other people into Jews, they are happy just to be left alone. The world is often very surprised to discover that the Jewish faith includes a complete provision for all non-Jews, regardless of race, social class or national origin, perfectly attuned to their needs, and deriving from the same source in Divine revelation through the prophecy of Moses, without any intermediary whatsoever. Only the true universal faith of the Jews regularly offers something to those who are not its members, and this is its sign of authenticity.<br />
<br />
This provision is known as the Noachide Laws. Though the first man and his wife, Adam and Eve, were commanded to observe them, they emerged fully only after Noah had survived the flood that wiped away violent sinners whose wrongdoings had engulfed the world in his time. The ancestors of the Jewish people were also commanded in them until they were given the whole Torah at Mount Sinai, and they were then reaffirmed through Moses for all the other nations.<br />
<br />
The laws are all prohibitions, unlike those of the Jewish people who have affirmative commandments, but they are not intended to make life dull or restricted. They point out what the good and true path should be, and with this path all moral necessities for the non-Jews are established, without need for any other philosophy, scientific discovery or change in government. All relationships between Jews and non-Jews are likewise explained, both in Israel and in other countries.<br />
<br />
===Sexual transgression===<br />
<br />
All people originate from sexual relations, and so the laws that govern them are our most basic ‘constitution’, testifying to the Divine origin of humankind. Non-Jews are not commanded to marry, but they are encouraged to do so, and they are forbidden to have relations with the wife of another man. Male homosexuality, incest and bestial relations are also forbidden under the same heading, even though the desires for them are very different. Jews and non-Jews are forbidden to each other, because of the different origin of their respective commandments. When these laws are observed, then human relations of all kinds are enhanced by the Divine sanction, and love increases throughout the world.<br />
<br />
===Murder===<br />
<br />
Though the reasons for sexual prohibitions may be mysterious, most people if asked what laws they would make to govern the world would immediately say that on no account must illegal bloodshed be allowed to go unpunished. Human life is a sacred trust, and can only be taken with legal sanction. The murderer is executed by decapitation, at the sentence of the duly authorized sovereign court only. Protection is extended to the unborn, and the details of any abortion case must be closely studied according to the law. War action is subject to strict security standards, at the order of a lawful regime. It is rare for any person to take life in truly wanton circumstances, because of instinctive recognition of its value, and this recognition must be taken up to the level of reckoning that the spiritual law requires.<br />
<br />
===Theft===<br />
<br />
The first man and woman transgressed the Noachide prohibition of theft by eating the fruit which had been forbidden to them, and this is still a Divine provision for non-Jews regarding all property in the hands of others. Property ownership is underwritten by Divine law for all humanity, and is not just a matter for an aggrieved individual to settle for himself. Respect for property rights is the basis for generosity with possessions, and for business dealings that lead the world through its use and traffic of goods to its final destiny. This brings moral satisfaction in the workplace, and the fostering of ethics in this area is a prime need for our society.<br />
<br />
===Idolatry===<br />
<br />
If the worship of entities other than the Creator had not been forbidden by His express command, then people would be free to choose what to worship, just as they choose their own personal friends. However the whole area of relations between humanity and its Creator has been placed under specific requirements, namely that only His truth and unity should be the subject of belief, worship and philosophy. His revelation has two levels, the one in nature for ordinary reckoning, and the other through prophecy on Mount Sinai for the moral law. All non-Jews derive their true religious fulfillment from this latter source, and any reference to an intermediary causes error and loss of morality. There is no need for non-Jews to form associations for Noachide observance and prayer, but they may do so if they wish.<br />
<br />
===Cursing the Name===<br />
<br />
The power of speech distinguishes humanity from all other species, and this distinction leads to the specific human prohibition not to use speech for cursing the Creator, because it shows ingratitude for his kindness. This commandment pairs with the previous one, showing that the Divine rulership and the Divine love go together at all times and places, no matter how great the difficulties may seem. Jews and non-Jews are commanded in the same verse in this respect, showing how in the Messianic times all of humankind will join together in voicing praise for the Creator. All other misuses of speech, such as gossip, obscenity and lies, are indicated in this commandment as something to avoid, just as prayer and words of Torah are desirable so that speech will become truly Divine.<br />
<br />
===Eating the limb of a living animal===<br />
<br />
Though it may seem far-fetched to think of eating meat from a living creature, the intent behind this prohibition is to safeguard the human sexual integrity. The connection between eating and sexuality is well known, and it is the sexual drive for consumption of the ‘heat of life’ that leads to the kind of greed that damages reproduction. The Noachide Law teaches us that this is rectified by being careful to eat only meat from an animal that is fully dead, and this is by no means always the case in our factory society where slaughterhouses handle meat animals quickly and carelessly, sometimes only stunning them before cutting them up for sale. Care in this observance fosters all requirements for the love of nature and the preservation of the environment, and safeguards the passage of souls as manifested in the life and consumption of food animals until the ultimate destiny of the world.<br />
<br />
===System of justice===<br />
<br />
The non-Jewish nations of the world are commanded to avoid the state of anarchy by assuming and exercising the sovereign jurisdiction, to maintain courts that punish offenders by due process of law, and that provide civil redress in society. The Noachide Laws themselves form the basis of the criminal code, but each nation may make civil laws as it sees fit within the general guidelines. This provision does not apply within the Land of Israel, where the sovereign power is in the hands of the Jewish people, and they judge non-Jews of any nationality living or visiting there under these same Noachide Laws. <br />
<br />
Corporations are held in being by the sovereign power through the enactment of corporate law, which is empowered by this commandment. The sovereign power is responsible for regulating these corporations in the public interest, and ensuring their conformity with all aspects of the law. Thus Communism and Fascism are in breach of the spiritual law because of their lack of this regulation. Non-Jews are obligated to seek reconciliation rather than take their disputes straight to court, and this in turn obligates them to give charitable donations to the needy so as to foster reconciliation in general.<br />
<br />
The Rabbis of the Talmud say, ‘War comes to the world through the delay of justice, the perversion of justice, and the teaching of Torah out of accordance with its legal meaning.’ When all processes of law are rectified in this way, with good government applied to sustain them, functioning in Divine integrity, then grievances are properly handled and true peace emerges into the light of day. This is among the recognitions of the United States Congress in its Declaration endorsing the Noachide Laws (H.J. Res. 104, Public Law 102-14, March 1990 and subsequently), based on long historic understanding of the Jewish people and the Torah.<br />
<br />
Book explanation by Rabbi Bindman:<br><br />
‘The Seven Colors of the Rainbow’<br><br />
Resource Publications Inc., S. Jose CA<br />
<br />
Copyright (c) 2013, Rabbi Yirmeyahu Bindman<br />
<br />
==Endnotes==<br />
<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
[[Category:Rambam Approach]]</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=The_Seven_Noahide_Laws,_Rabbi_Yirmeyahu_Bindman&diff=16097The Seven Noahide Laws, Rabbi Yirmeyahu Bindman2013-01-28T10:56:11Z<p>HaNoahide: </p>
<hr />
<div>As the author of the standard teaching guide to the Seven Noachide Laws of the Jewish Torah for all non-Jews, 'The Seven Colors of the Rainbow' I am glad to send you below and attached information on this concept, endorsed by the US Congress since 1991 as the true universal morality (House Judiciary Resolution 104, Public Law 102-14).<br />
<br />
The Talmudic sage Rabbi Akiva was asked by a Roman lady - not Jewish - "What has your God been doing since He created the world?" and replied, "He sits and arranges marriages."<br />
<br />
Business corporations are Noachide-law entities, derived from a specific Rabbinic decision in the Noachide commandment of laws, and held in being by the non-Jewish government, which is thus responsible for their regulation in the public interest. The Jewish Bet Din cannot create corporations, nor can any Jewish lay body, and the non-Jewish or Israeli courts have jurisdiction on all disputes involving corporate matters.<br />
<br />
Corporations in their present form originated in the Dutch state during its period of collaboration with the Jewish community in the 17th century. This was the first appearance of a legal situation designed for Jews and non-Jews to work and invest together in the same economy. The system of independent banking, or free capital market, appeared at the same time and place, when notice came that the Noachide law allows non-Jews to take interest on loans to each other, in contrast to the medieval church prohibition.<br />
<br />
Before the French Revolution each Jewish community was given a corporate status by the non-Jewish government for tax purposes, which caused it to function as a business corporation, formally almost identical to the socio-religious corporate American colonies of the time, and when this was abolished Jewish interests re-founded it as a single entity in the Land of Israel as the 'state' we have today.<br />
<br />
Non-Jews are enjoined under the Commandment of Laws to give charitable donations to each other, so as to allay resentment and confrontation in society generally, and create a climate where disputes can be peacefully resolved without having to go to court.<br />
<br />
The Noachide law has no war of religion, no imperative to conquer unbelievers in the name of the Seven Laws, and non-Jews are not commanded to fight. Non-Jewish warfare is solely to ensure proper functioning legality in accordance with the Commandment of Laws.<br />
<br />
Each non-Jewish nation is empowered to conduct its Noachide legal affairs according to its own pathways, and this is the concept of 'nimuseihem', or 'their customs', the autonomy of the non-Jewish nations in their laws. Nevertheless there are certain topics that can only be decided by the Rabbinic level, such as the validity of the corporate law, and other guiding principles that cannot be transgressed. Even though the law often allows individuals to contract to exclude legal provisions, many people falsely assume that this also applies to the basic spiritual laws of the creation.<br />
<br />
Sincerely,<br><br />
Yirmeyahu Bindman.<br />
<br />
==The Seven Noahide Laws==<br />
<br />
THE SEVEN NOACHIDE LAWS.<br><br />
[[Rabbi Yirmeyahu Bindman]].<br />
<br />
It is well known that the Jewish faith does not seek to make converts, and so it is generally supposed that since the Jewish people do not want to make other people into Jews, they are happy just to be left alone. The world is often very surprised to discover that the Jewish faith includes a complete provision for all non-Jews, regardless of race, social class or national origin, perfectly attuned to their needs, and deriving from the same source in Divine revelation through the prophecy of Moses, without any intermediary whatsoever. Only the true universal faith of the Jews regularly offers something to those who are not its members, and this is its sign of authenticity.<br />
<br />
This provision is known as the Noachide Laws. Though the first man and his wife, Adam and Eve, were commanded to observe them, they emerged fully only after Noah had survived the flood that wiped away violent sinners whose wrongdoings had engulfed the world in his time. The ancestors of the Jewish people were also commanded in them until they were given the whole Torah at Mount Sinai, and they were then reaffirmed through Moses for all the other nations.<br />
<br />
The laws are all prohibitions, unlike those of the Jewish people who have affirmative commandments, but they are not intended to make life dull or restricted. They point out what the good and true path should be, and with this path all moral necessities for the non-Jews are established, without need for any other philosophy, scientific discovery or change in government. All relationships between Jews and non-Jews are likewise explained, both in Israel and in other countries.<br />
<br />
===Sexual transgression===<br />
<br />
All people originate from sexual relations, and so the laws that govern them are our most basic ‘constitution’, testifying to the Divine origin of humankind. Non-Jews are not commanded to marry, but they are encouraged to do so, and they are forbidden to have relations with the wife of another man. Male homosexuality, incest and bestial relations are also forbidden under the same heading, even though the desires for them are very different. Jews and non-Jews are forbidden to each other, because of the different origin of their respective commandments. When these laws are observed, then human relations of all kinds are enhanced by the Divine sanction, and love increases throughout the world.<br />
<br />
===Murder===<br />
<br />
Though the reasons for sexual prohibitions may be mysterious, most people if asked what laws they would make to govern the world would immediately say that on no account must illegal bloodshed be allowed to go unpunished. Human life is a sacred trust, and can only be taken with legal sanction. The murderer is executed by decapitation, at the sentence of the duly authorized sovereign court only. Protection is extended to the unborn, and the details of any abortion case must be closely studied according to the law. War action is subject to strict security standards, at the order of a lawful regime. It is rare for any person to take life in truly wanton circumstances, because of instinctive recognition of its value, and this recognition must be taken up to the level of reckoning that the spiritual law requires.<br />
<br />
===Theft===<br />
<br />
The first man and woman transgressed the Noachide prohibition of theft by eating the fruit which had been forbidden to them, and this is still a Divine provision for non-Jews regarding all property in the hands of others. Property ownership is underwritten by Divine law for all humanity, and is not just a matter for an aggrieved individual to settle for himself. Respect for property rights is the basis for generosity with possessions, and for business dealings that lead the world through its use and traffic of goods to its final destiny. This brings moral satisfaction in the workplace, and the fostering of ethics in this area is a prime need for our society.<br />
<br />
===Idolatry===<br />
<br />
If the worship of entities other than the Creator had not been forbidden by His express command, then people would be free to choose what to worship, just as they choose their own personal friends. However the whole area of relations between humanity and its Creator has been placed under specific requirements, namely that only His truth and unity should be the subject of belief, worship and philosophy. His revelation has two levels, the one in nature for ordinary reckoning, and the other through prophecy on Mount Sinai for the moral law. All non-Jews derive their true religious fulfillment from this latter source, and any reference to an intermediary causes error and loss of morality. There is no need for non-Jews to form associations for Noachide observance and prayer, but they may do so if they wish.<br />
<br />
===Cursing the Name===<br />
<br />
The power of speech distinguishes humanity from all other species, and this distinction leads to the specific human prohibition not to use speech for cursing the Creator, because it shows ingratitude for his kindness. This commandment pairs with the previous one, showing that the Divine rulership and the Divine love go together at all times and places, no matter how great the difficulties may seem. Jews and non-Jews are commanded in the same verse in this respect, showing how in the Messianic times all of humankind will join together in voicing praise for the Creator. All other misuses of speech, such as gossip, obscenity and lies, are indicated in this commandment as something to avoid, just as prayer and words of Torah are desirable so that speech will become truly Divine.<br />
<br />
===Eating the limb of a living animal===<br />
<br />
Though it may seem far-fetched to think of eating meat from a living creature, the intent behind this prohibition is to safeguard the human sexual integrity. The connection between eating and sexuality is well known, and it is the sexual drive for consumption of the ‘heat of life’ that leads to the kind of greed that damages reproduction. The Noachide Law teaches us that this is rectified by being careful to eat only meat from an animal that is fully dead, and this is by no means always the case in our factory society where slaughterhouses handle meat animals quickly and carelessly, sometimes only stunning them before cutting them up for sale. Care in this observance fosters all requirements for the love of nature and the preservation of the environment, and safeguards the passage of souls as manifested in the life and consumption of food animals until the ultimate destiny of the world.<br />
<br />
===System of justice===<br />
<br />
The non-Jewish nations of the world are commanded to avoid the state of anarchy by assuming and exercising the sovereign jurisdiction, to maintain courts that punish offenders by due process of law, and that provide civil redress in society. The Noachide Laws themselves form the basis of the criminal code, but each nation may make civil laws as it sees fit within the general guidelines. This provision does not apply within the Land of Israel, where the sovereign power is in the hands of the Jewish people, and they judge non-Jews of any nationality living or visiting there under these same Noachide Laws. <br />
<br />
Corporations are held in being by the sovereign power through the enactment of corporate law, which is empowered by this commandment. The sovereign power is responsible for regulating these corporations in the public interest, and ensuring their conformity with all aspects of the law. Thus Communism and Fascism are in breach of the spiritual law because of their lack of this regulation. Non-Jews are obligated to seek reconciliation rather than take their disputes straight to court, and this in turn obligates them to give charitable donations to the needy so as to foster reconciliation in general.<br />
<br />
The Rabbis of the Talmud say, ‘War comes to the world through the delay of justice, the perversion of justice, and the teaching of Torah out of accordance with its legal meaning.’ When all processes of law are rectified in this way, with good government applied to sustain them, functioning in Divine integrity, then grievances are properly handled and true peace emerges into the light of day. This is among the recognitions of the United States Congress in its Declaration endorsing the Noachide Laws (H.J. Res. 104, Public Law 102-14, March 1990 and subsequently), based on long historic understanding of the Jewish people and the Torah.<br />
<br />
Book explanation by Rabbi Bindman:<br><br />
‘The Seven Colors of the Rainbow’<br><br />
Resource Publications Inc., S. Jose CA<br />
<br />
==Endnotes==<br />
<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
[[Category:Rambam Approach]]</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=The_Seven_Noahide_Laws,_Rabbi_Yirmeyahu_Bindman&diff=16096The Seven Noahide Laws, Rabbi Yirmeyahu Bindman2013-01-28T10:54:19Z<p>HaNoahide: Created page with 'As the author of the standard teaching guide to the Seven Noachide Laws of the Jewish Torah for all non-Jews, 'The Seven Colors of the Rainbow' I am glad to send you below and at…'</p>
<hr />
<div>As the author of the standard teaching guide to the Seven Noachide Laws of the Jewish Torah for all non-Jews, 'The Seven Colors of the Rainbow' I am glad to send you below and attached information on this concept, endorsed by the US Congress since 1991 as the true universal morality (House Judiciary Resolution 104, Public Law 102-14).<br />
<br />
The Talmudic sage Rabbi Akiva was asked by a Roman lady - not Jewish - "What has your God been doing since He created the world?" and replied, "He sits and arranges marriages."<br />
<br />
Business corporations are Noachide-law entities, derived from a specific Rabbinic decision in the Noachide commandment of laws, and held in being by the non-Jewish government, which is thus responsible for their regulation in the public interest. The Jewish Bet Din cannot create corporations, nor can any Jewish lay body, and the non-Jewish or Israeli courts have jurisdiction on all disputes involving corporate matters.<br />
<br />
Corporations in their present form originated in the Dutch state during its period of collaboration with the Jewish community in the 17th century. This was the first appearance of a legal situation designed for Jews and non-Jews to work and invest together in the same economy. The system of independent banking, or free capital market, appeared at the same time and place, when notice came that the Noachide law allows non-Jews to take interest on loans to each other, in contrast to the medieval church prohibition.<br />
<br />
Before the French Revolution each Jewish community was given a corporate status by the non-Jewish government for tax purposes, which caused it to function as a business corporation, formally almost identical to the socio-religious corporate American colonies of the time, and when this was abolished Jewish interests re-founded it as a single entity in the Land of Israel as the 'state' we have today.<br />
<br />
Non-Jews are enjoined under the Commandment of Laws to give charitable donations to each other, so as to allay resentment and confrontation in society generally, and create a climate where disputes can be peacefully resolved without having to go to court.<br />
<br />
The Noachide law has no war of religion, no imperative to conquer unbelievers in the name of the Seven Laws, and non-Jews are not commanded to fight. Non-Jewish warfare is solely to ensure proper functioning legality in accordance with the Commandment of Laws.<br />
<br />
Each non-Jewish nation is empowered to conduct its Noachide legal affairs according to its own pathways, and this is the concept of 'nimuseihem', or 'their customs', the autonomy of the non-Jewish nations in their laws. Nevertheless there are certain topics that can only be decided by the Rabbinic level, such as the validity of the corporate law, and other guiding principles that cannot be transgressed. Even though the law often allows individuals to contract to exclude legal provisions, many people falsely assume that this also applies to the basic spiritual laws of the creation.<br />
<br />
Sincerely,<br><br />
Yirmeyahu Bindman.<br />
<br />
==The Seven Noahide Laws==<br />
<br />
THE SEVEN NOACHIDE LAWS.<br><br />
[[Rabbi Yirmeyahu Bindman]].<br />
<br />
It is well known that the Jewish faith does not seek to make converts, and so it is generally supposed that since the Jewish people do not want to make other people into Jews, they are happy just to be left alone. The world is often very surprised to discover that the Jewish faith includes a complete provision for all non-Jews, regardless of race, social class or national origin, perfectly attuned to their needs, and deriving from the same source in Divine revelation through the prophecy of Moses, without any intermediary whatsoever. Only the true universal faith of the Jews regularly offers something to those who are not its members, and this is its sign of authenticity.<br />
<br />
This provision is known as the Noachide Laws. Though the first man and his wife, Adam and Eve, were commanded to observe them, they emerged fully only after Noah had survived the flood that wiped away violent sinners whose wrongdoings had engulfed the world in his time. The ancestors of the Jewish people were also commanded in them until they were given the whole Torah at Mount Sinai, and they were then reaffirmed through Moses for all the other nations.<br />
<br />
The laws are all prohibitions, unlike those of the Jewish people who have affirmative commandments, but they are not intended to make life dull or restricted. They point out what the good and true path should be, and with this path all moral necessities for the non-Jews are established, without need for any other philosophy, scientific discovery or change in government. All relationships between Jews and non-Jews are likewise explained, both in Israel and in other countries.<br />
<br />
===Sexual transgression===<br />
<br />
All people originate from sexual relations, and so the laws that govern them are our most basic ‘constitution’, testifying to the Divine origin of humankind. Non-Jews are not commanded to marry, but they are encouraged to do so, and they are forbidden to have relations with the wife of another man. Male homosexuality, incest and bestial relations are also forbidden under the same heading, even though the desires for them are very different. Jews and non-Jews are forbidden to each other, because of the different origin of their respective commandments. When these laws are observed, then human relations of all kinds are enhanced by the Divine sanction, and love increases throughout the world.<br />
<br />
===Murder===<br />
<br />
Though the reasons for sexual prohibitions may be mysterious, most people if asked what laws they would make to govern the world would immediately say that on no account must illegal bloodshed be allowed to go unpunished. Human life is a sacred trust, and can only be taken with legal sanction. The murderer is executed by decapitation, at the sentence of the duly authorized sovereign court only. Protection is extended to the unborn, and the details of any abortion case must be closely studied according to the law. War action is subject to strict security standards, at the order of a lawful regime. It is rare for any person to take life in truly wanton circumstances, because of instinctive recognition of its value, and this recognition must be taken up to the level of reckoning that the spiritual law requires.<br />
<br />
===Theft===<br />
<br />
The first man and woman transgressed the Noachide prohibition of theft by eating the fruit which had been forbidden to them, and this is still a Divine provision for non-Jews regarding all property in the hands of others. Property ownership is underwritten by Divine law for all humanity, and is not just a matter for an aggrieved individual to settle for himself. Respect for property rights is the basis for generosity with possessions, and for business dealings that lead the world through its use and traffic of goods to its final destiny. This brings moral satisfaction in the workplace, and the fostering of ethics in this area is a prime need for our society.<br />
<br />
===Idolatry===<br />
<br />
If the worship of entities other than the Creator had not been forbidden by His express command, then people would be free to choose what to worship, just as they choose their own personal friends. However the whole area of relations between humanity and its Creator has been placed under specific requirements, namely that only His truth and unity should be the subject of belief, worship and philosophy. His revelation has two levels, the one in nature for ordinary reckoning, and the other through prophecy on Mount Sinai for the moral law. All non-Jews derive their true religious fulfillment from this latter source, and any reference to an intermediary causes error and loss of morality. There is no need for non-Jews to form associations for Noachide observance and prayer, but they may do so if they wish.<br />
<br />
===Cursing the Name===<br />
<br />
The power of speech distinguishes humanity from all other species, and this distinction leads to the specific human prohibition not to use speech for cursing the Creator, because it shows ingratitude for his kindness. This commandment pairs with the previous one, showing that the Divine rulership and the Divine love go together at all times and places, no matter how great the difficulties may seem. Jews and non-Jews are commanded in the same verse in this respect, showing how in the Messianic times all of humankind will join together in voicing praise for the Creator. All other misuses of speech, such as gossip, obscenity and lies, are indicated in this commandment as something to avoid, just as prayer and words of Torah are desirable so that speech will become truly Divine.<br />
<br />
===Eating the limb of a living animal===<br />
<br />
Though it may seem far-fetched to think of eating meat from a living creature, the intent behind this prohibition is to safeguard the human sexual integrity. The connection between eating and sexuality is well known, and it is the sexual drive for consumption of the ‘heat of life’ that leads to the kind of greed that damages reproduction. The Noachide Law teaches us that this is rectified by being careful to eat only meat from an animal that is fully dead, and this is by no means always the case in our factory society where slaughterhouses handle meat animals quickly and carelessly, sometimes only stunning them before cutting them up for sale. Care in this observance fosters all requirements for the love of nature and the preservation of the environment, and safeguards the passage of souls as manifested in the life and consumption of food animals until the ultimate destiny of the world.<br />
<br />
===System of justice===<br />
<br />
The non-Jewish nations of the world are commanded to avoid the state of anarchy by assuming and exercising the sovereign jurisdiction, to maintain courts that punish offenders by due process of law, and that provide civil redress in society. The Noachide Laws themselves form the basis of the criminal code, but each nation may make civil laws as it sees fit within the general guidelines. This provision does not apply within the Land of Israel, where the sovereign power is in the hands of the Jewish people, and they judge non-Jews of any nationality living or visiting there under these same Noachide Laws. <br />
<br />
Corporations are held in being by the sovereign power through the enactment of corporate law, which is empowered by this commandment. The sovereign power is responsible for regulating these corporations in the public interest, and ensuring their conformity with all aspects of the law. Thus Communism and Fascism are in breach of the spiritual law because of their lack of this regulation. Non-Jews are obligated to seek reconciliation rather than take their disputes straight to court, and this in turn obligates them to give charitable donations to the needy so as to foster reconciliation in general.<br />
<br />
The Rabbis of the Talmud say, ‘War comes to the world through the delay of justice, the perversion of justice, and the teaching of Torah out of accordance with its legal meaning.’ When all processes of law are rectified in this way, with good government applied to sustain them, functioning in Divine integrity, then grievances are properly handled and true peace emerges into the light of day. This is among the recognitions of the United States Congress in its Declaration endorsing the Noachide Laws (H.J. Res. 104, Public Law 102-14, March 1990 and subsequently), based on long historic understanding of the Jewish people and the Torah.<br />
<br />
Book explanation by Rabbi Bindman:<br><br />
‘The Seven Colors of the Rainbow’<br><br />
Resource Publications Inc., S. Jose CA</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=Seven_Commandments&diff=16095Seven Commandments2013-01-28T10:51:18Z<p>HaNoahide: /* See also */</p>
<hr />
<div>The Talmud states: "Righteous people of all nations have a share in the world to come" ([[Sanhedrin 105a]]). <br />
<br />
[[Maimonides]] says any non-Jew who accepts the seven commandments and is careful to perform them – this person is of the ''[[Chasidei Umos HaOlam]]'', and has a portion in the world to come. They accept these seven commandments and performs them because they were commanded by G-d in ancient times, as revealed to us by Moshe Rabbenu. <br />
<br />
However, if the non-Jew keeps these laws because of intellectual decision – he is not called a ''[[Ger Toshav]]'' and is not of the ''[[Chasidei Umos HaOlam]]''. He is only one of their [[Chochmei Umos HaOlam|wise men]].<ref>[[Maimonides' Law of Noahides#Laws of Kings and their Wars, Chapter 8|Mishneh Torah, Melachim 8:11]]</ref><br />
<br />
==The Seven Laws==<br />
The very first time in the Bible that the verb ''tsavah'' (צָוָה, “to command”) appears is in the verse "And the L-rd G-d commanded the man saying, of every tree of the garden you may freely eat" (Genesis 2:16). Rabbinic tradition understands this first commandment to ''Adam HaRishon'' as including the entire Noahide Law:<ref>[[Sanhedrin 56a-b|Sanhedrin 56]]. This is according to Rabbi Johanan. Rabbi Isaac reverses the first and third verses.</ref><br />
# ''And [He] commanded'', refers to '''legal system''', and thus it is written, For I know him, that he will command his children and his household after him, and they shall keep the way of the Lord, to do justice and judgment.<br />
# ''The L-rd'' — is [a prohibition against] '''blasphemy''', and thus it is written, and he that blasphemeth the name of the Lord, he shall surely be put to death.<br />
# ''G-d'' — is [an injunction against] '''idolatry''', and thus it is written, Thou shalt have no other gods before Me.<br />
# ''The man'' — refers to '''homicide''', and thus it is written, Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed.<br />
# ''Saying'' — refers to '''sexual immorality''', and thus it is written, They say, If a man put away his wife, and she go from him, and became another man's.<br />
# ''Of every tree of the garden'' — but not of '''theft'''.<br />
# ''Thou mayest freely eat'' — but not '''limb of a living creature'''.<br />
<br />
The seven laws listed by the Talmud are<ref>[[Sanhedrin 56a-b|Sanhedrin 56]]</ref><br />
# [[Imperative of Legal System]]: - An imperative to pursue social justice, and a prohibition of any miscarriage of justice.<br />
# [[Prohibition of Blasphemy]]: - Prohibits a curse directed at the Supreme Being.<br />
# [[Prohibition of Idolatry]]: - Prohibits the worship of idols and planets.<br />
# [[Prohibition of Homicide]]: - Prohibits murder and suicide.<br />
# [[Prohibition of Sexual Immorality]]: - Prohibits adultery, incest, homosexuality, and bestiality.<br />
# [[Prohibition of Theft]]: - Prohibits the wrongful taking of another's goods.<br />
# [[Prohibition of Limb of a Living Creature]]: - Prohibits the eating of animal parts which were severed from a living animal (traditionally interpreted as a prohibition of cruelty towards animals)<br />
<br />
Maimonides list them in this order (the order most commonly used)<ref>[[Maimonides' Law of Noahides#Laws of Kings and their Wars, Chapter 9|Mishneh Torah, Melachim 9:1]]</ref><br />
# [[Prohibition of Idolatry]]<br />
# [[Prohibition of Blasphemy]]<br />
# [[Prohibition of Homicide]]<br />
# [[Prohibition of Sexual Immorality]]<br />
# [[Prohibition of Theft]]<br />
# [[Prohibition of Limb of a Living Creature]]<br />
# [[Imperative of Legal System]]<br />
<br />
Most modern Noahide literature follows this ordering, mostly due to the work of [[Chabad Lubavitch]], which sees in the list a correspondence to the seven [[Sefiros]] (For example "Legal System" is a translation of the hebrew word ''Dinim'' which seems obviously connected to ''Malchus'', as in ''Dina DeMalchusa Dina'').<ref>cf. "The Seven Colors of the Rainbow" by Rabbi Yirmeyahu Bindman, chapter 6</ref><br />
<br />
==Rabbinical Source==<br />
<br />
The Seven Laws are laws which were binding upon mankind at large even before the revelation at Sinai, and which are still binding upon non-Jews. The term Noachide indicates the universality of these ordinances, since according to Jewish tradition the whole human race is descended from the three sons of Noah, who alone survived the Flood. Although one would think that only those laws which are found in the earlier chapters of the Torah, before the record of the revelation at Sinai, should be binding upon all mankind, yet the Rabbis discarded some and, by hermeneutic rules or in accordance with some tradition <ref>see Judah ha-Levi, "Cuzari," 3:73</ref>, introduced others which are not found there. Basing their views on the passage in Genesis 2:16, they declared that the following six commandments were enjoined upon Adam: (1) not to worship idols; (2) not to blaspheme the name of G-d; (3) to establish courts of justice; (4) not to kill; (5) not to commit adultery; and (6) not to rob<ref>Genesus Rabbah 16:9, 24:5; Shir HaShirim Rabbah 1:16; compare with Seder 'Olam Rabbah, ed. Ratner, chapter 5, and notes, Wilna, 1897; Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Melachim, 9:1</ref>. A seventh commandment was added after the Flood—not to eat flesh that had been cut from a living animal (Genesis 9:4). Thus,the Talmud frequently speaks of "the seven laws of the sons of Noah," which were regarded as obligatory upon all mankind, in contradistinction to those that were binding upon Israelites only.<ref>Tosefos, 'Avodah Zarah, 9:4; [[Sanhedrin 56a-b|Sanhedrin 56a]] et seq.</ref><br />
<br />
While many clarifications to these laws were proposed by some of the tannaim — e.g., the prohibitions against eating the blood of a living animal, against the emasculation of animals, against sorcery, against pairing animals of different species, and against grafting trees of different kinds<ref>[[Sanhedrin 56a-b|Sanhedrin 56b]]</ref> — so that in one place thirty Noachian laws are mentioned,<ref>Hullin 92a; compare Yerushalmi 'Avodah Zarah 2:1</ref>, the prevalent opinion in the Talmud is that there are only seven laws which are binding upon all mankind. In another baraita<ref>Tanna debe Menasseh</ref> the seven Noachian prohibitions are enumerated as applying to the following: (1) idolatry, (2) adultery, (3) murder, (4) robbery, (5) eating of a limb cut from a living animal, (6) the emasculation of animals, (7) the pairing of animals of different species<ref>[[Sanhedrin 56a-b|Sanhedrin 56b]]</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Laws Before Sinai==<br />
<br />
With regard to the other laws which are mentioned in the Book of Genesis and which were not included among the Noachian laws, as, for instance, circumcision and the prohibition against eating of the "sinew that shrank," the Rabbis laid down the following principle: "Every law that was enjoined upon the Noachide and was repeated at Sinai is meant to apply both to Israelites and to non-Israelites; laws that were enjoined upon the Noachide and were not repeated at Sinai apply to Israelites only".<ref>[[Sanhedrin 59a]]; R. Jose ben H.anina; comp. Bacher, "Ag. Pal. Amor." i. 430 and note</ref> By this principle a number of the pre-Sinaitic laws were excluded from the Noachian laws, although it required a great deal of speculative reasoning to make this principle apply to all cases.<ref>[[Sanhedrin 59b]]</ref><br />
<br />
In the elaboration of these seven Noachian laws, and in assigning punishments for their transgression, the Rabbis are sometimes more lenient and sometimes more rigorous with Noachide than with Israelites. With but a few exceptions, the punishment meted out to a Noachide for the transgression of any of the seven laws is decapitation, the least painful of the four modes of execution of criminals (see [[Capital Punishment]]). The many formalities of procedure essential when the accused is an Israelite need not be observed in the case of the Noachide. The latter may be convicted on the testimony of one witness, even on that of relatives, but not on that of a woman. He need have had no warning (''hatra'ah'') from the witnesses; and a single judge may pass sentence on him .<ref>[[Sanhedrin 57a]], [[Sanhedrin 57b]]; [[Maimonides' Law of Noahides#Laws of Kings and their Wars, Chapter 9|Mishneh Torah, Melachim 9:14]]</ref> With regard to idolatry, he can be found guilty only if he worshiped an idol in the regular form in which that particular deity is usually worshiped; while in the case of blasphemy he may be found guilty, even when he has blasphemed with one of the attributes of G-d's name—an action which, if committed by an Israelite, would not be regarded as criminal.<ref>[[Sanhedrin 56a-b|Sanhedrin 56b]]; see [[Blasphemy]])</ref><br />
<br />
==Procedure==<br />
<br />
The Noachide are required to establish courts of justice in every city and province; and these courts are to judge the people with regard to the six laws and to warn them against the transgression of any of them.<ref>ib.; [[Maimonides' Law of Noahides#Laws of Kings and their Wars, Chapter 9|Mishneh Torah, Melachim 9:14,10"11]]; comp. Nachmanides on Gen. xxxiv. 13, where the opinion is expressed that these courts should judge also cases other than those coming under the head of the six laws, as, for example, larceny, assault and battery, etc.</ref> In the case of murder, if the Noachide slay a child in its mother's womb, or kill a person whose life is despaired of (''terefah''), or if he cause the death of a person by starving him or by putting him before a lion so that he can not escape, or if he slay a man in self-defense, the Noachide is guilty of murder and must pay the death-penalty, although under the same circumstances an Israelite would not be executed<ref>[[Sanhedrin 57b]]; [[Maimonides' Law of Noahides#Laws of Kings and their Wars, Chapter 9|Mishneh Torah, Melachim 9:4]]; comp. "Kesef Mishneh," ad loc.</ref><br />
<br />
Only six cases of what would ordinarily be illicit connection are forbidden to the Noachide: (1) with mother; (2) with father's wife, even after the father's death; (3) with a married woman, whether married to a Jew or to a non-Jew; (4) with sister by the same mother; (5) pederasty; (6) bestiality. In these cases also there are differences in the punishment inflicted, dependent upon whether the offenses are committed by a Noachide or by an Israelite.<ref>see [[Maimonides' Law of Noahides#Laws of Kings and their Wars, Chapter 9|Mishneh Torah, Melachim 9:5-8]]</ref> The Noachide is punished with decapitation for all kinds of robbery, whether from a Jew or from a non-Jew, even though the article stolen is worth less than a ''perutah'' (the smallest Palestinian coin, for less than which no case can be instituted against an Israelite). The Noachide is executed also if he eat of a limb cut from a living animal, even though the quantity consumed be less than the size of an olive (the minimum portion for the eating of which an Israelite may be punished.<ref>[[Maimonides' Law of Noahides#Laws of Kings and their Wars, Chapter 9|Mishneh Torah, Melachim 9:9-13]]</ref><br />
<br />
==Special Exceptions==<br />
<br />
The Noachide is free from punishment if he commits a sin unwittingly; ignorance of the Law, however, does not excuse him. If he commits a sin under duress, even one for which an Israelite is obliged to undergo martyrdom rather than transgress (e.g., idolatry, adultery, or murder), he is not liable to punishment <ref>Mak. 9a; Sanh. 74b; [[Maimonides' Law of Noahides#Laws of Kings and their Wars, Chapter 10|Mishneh Torah, Melachim 10:1,2]]; comp. "Lechem Mishneh" and "Kesef Mishneh," ad loc.</ref> A Noachide who slays another Noachide, or worships idols, or blasphemes, or has illicit connection with the wife of another Noachide, and then becomes a proselyte, is free from punishment. If, however, he has killed an Israelite, or has had illicit connection with the wife of an Israelite, and then becomes a proselyte, he must submit to the punishment that is inflicted upon an Israelite found guilty of such a transgression <ref>[[Sanhedrin 71b]]; [[Maimonides' Law of Noahides#Laws of Kings and their Wars, Chapter 10|Mishneh Torah, Melachim 10:4]]</ref>.<br />
<br />
A Noachide who wishes to observe any of the laws of the Torah is not prevented from doing so. With regard to the prohibition against a Noachide studying the Law or observing the Sabbath, see [[Gentile]] in Relation to Jews.<br />
<br />
He who observed the seven Noachian laws was regarded as a foreign resident<ref>'Ab. Zarah 64b; see [[Ger Toshav]]</ref>, as one of the pious of the Gentiles, and was assured of a portion in the world to come.<ref>Tosef., Sanh. xiii. 1; Sanh. 105a; comp. ib. 91b; [[Maimonides' Law of Noahides#Laws of Kings and their Wars, Chapter 8|Mishneh Torah, Melachim 8:11]]</ref> In Talmudic times the non-Jews of Babylon were apparently sunk in the grossest immorality, so that 'Ula, one of the earlierBabylonian amoraim, complains that out of the thirty laws (see above) which the Noachide accept they observe only three—they do not write a marriage contract (''ketubah'') for pederasty; they do not sell human flesh in their shops; and they show respect for the Torah.<ref>Hullin 92b</ref><br />
<br />
In the Messianic age the Noachide will accept all the laws of the Torah, although later they will again reject them.<ref>Yer. 'Ab. Zarah ii. 1</ref><br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Hamburger, R. B. T. ii., s.v. Noachideen;<br />
* Hirschfeld, Pflichten und Gesetze der Noachideen, in Kobak's Jeschurun, iv. 1-19;<br />
* Levinsohn, Zerubbabel, ii. 74-87, Warsaw, 1878;<br />
* Weber, System der Altsynag. Pala"st. Theologie, § 56, Leipsic, 1880;<br />
* Zweifel, Sanegor, pp. 269 et seq., Warsaw, 1894.S. J. H. G.<br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
* [http://torahweb.org/torah/2000/parsha/rros_noach2000.html Rabbi Michael Rosensweig - Shevah Mizvot Benei Noah vs. Brit Milah] Why is Noah associated with Noahide Laws?<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[The Seven Noahide Laws, Rabbi Yirmeyahu Bindman]]<br />
* [[Seven Commandments as a subset of the Ten Commandments]]<br />
* [[Noahide Law in the Qur'an]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
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<div>The Talmudic tradition that there are seventy nations in the world is based on the list of Noah's descendants<ref>R' Bachya</ref>. This tradition of seventy nations is deep-rooted. According to the Midrash each of the seventy nations is placed under the protection of a special angle, except Israel, whose Protector is G-d Himself.<ref>Genesis Rabbah 37</ref><br />
<br />
The seventy bullocks sacrificed on Tabernacles were offered to atone for the seventy nations. 'Woe to the nations!' says Rav Yochanan; 'for they suffered a loss [by having destroyed the Temple] and do not realize the extent of the loss. While the Temple existed the altar [the sacrifices] atoned for them, but now [that it is destroyed] who will atone for them?'<ref>Sukkah 55b, Pesikk. 193b, 195b</ref><br />
<br />
According to many commentators<ref>Radak, Ralbag, Chizkuni, Malbim</ref> this concept seems to underlie Deut. 32:8 which says that G-d 'established the boundaries of nations [i.e. the seventy nations]... according to the number of the children of Israel' -- namely the seventy who descended to Egypt with Yakov <ref>Genesis 46:27</ref><br />
<br />
The seventy members of the Sanhedrin also corresponded to the seventy nations of the world.<ref>Targum Yerushalmi to Genesis 28:3</ref> The Jewish law required that every member of the Sanhedrin should have sufficient knowledge of the seventy languages to be able to listen to testimony without an interpreter.<ref>Sanhedrin 17a; comp. Megilah 73b; Menachos 65a</ref><br />
<br />
==Seventy Languages==<br />
<br />
There was a discussion between R. Eleazar and R. Johanan with regard to the languages spoken before the Dispersion. According to the former, each nation had its own language, though it understood all the others; while the latter held that only Hebrew was spoken.<ref>Genesis Rabbah 11:1</ref><br />
<br />
An interesting appreciation of the qualities of various languages is that given by Jonathan of Bet Gubrin. "There are," he says, "four fine languages that ought to be used by the whole world: Greek for poetry; Latin for war; Aramaic for the dirge; and Hebrew for general speech." Some add that the characters of the Assyrian language should be borrowed, but not the language itself, which is not an original one.<ref>Yerushalmi Meggilah 1,71a</ref> According to a haggadah, the angels understand all languages except the Aramaic, and therefore it is recommended not to pray in that language.<ref>Shabbos 12b</ref> Gabriel, however, is an exception to the rule, for to his teaching the haggadah attributes Joseph's knowledge of all the seventy languages. "The astrologers," it is related in the haggadah, "said to Pharaoh: 'What! Shall a slave who was bought for twenty pieces of silver rule over us?' Pharaoh replied: 'But I find him endowed with kingly attributes!' 'If that is the case,' they answered, 'he must know the seventy languages.' Then Gabriel taught him all the seventy languages"<ref>Sotah 36b; Yalkut Re'uveni, Miketz, 71b</ref><br />
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The Torah was written in seventy languages in order that the nations should not be able to plead ignorance as their excuse for rejecting it.<ref>Tosef., Sotah 8</ref> Among the seventy languages the most noble is Hebrew, for in it was pronounced the creative word of G-d.<ref>Genesis Rabbah 18, 31; Yalkut, Genesis 52</ref><br />
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Just as there were seventy nations<ref>cf. Targum Yonasan to 11:7</ref>, the words of the Torah engraved on the Tablets on Mount Ebal<ref>Deut. 27:2ff</ref> were written in seventy languages<ref>Mishna, Sotah 7:5</ref> so that all the nations might read it. For the same reason, G-d's voice at Sinai divided itself into seventy languages.<ref>Shabbos 58b; Shabbos 88a; Exodus Rabbah 5; comp. Acts ii. 5</ref><br />
<br />
== Parallels to the Seventy Nations ==<br />
<br />
Harav David Feinstein explains the significance of the many parallels to the seventy nations: the seventy languages into which the Torah was translated, the seventy offerings of Tabernacles, the seventy members of the Sanhedrin.<br />
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Indeed, on the verse "He established the boundaries of nations according to the number of the children of Israel"<ref>Deut 32:8</ref>, the Sages comment that G-d established seventy nations because Jacob's family numbered seventy when he descended to Egypt. Why was it necessary for the number of nations to correspond to the number of Jews? Moreover, at the conclusion of the forty years in the desert Moses explained th Torah to the Jews in all seventy languages.<ref>Deut. 1:5 see Rashi</ref> Why was necessary for him to use seventy languages when all his listeners were Hebrew-speaking Jews?<br />
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Each of the seventy nations represented a unique characteristic, as the Sages say, one excelled in warfare, another in licentiousness, another in beauty and so on. All of these national virtues and strains of character are present in Israel as well for each person has gifts to develop and temptations to overcome. G-d wants all nations to rise to their greatest spiritual potential.<br />
<br />
These variations were present in the individuals of Jacob's family. And the seventy languages used by Moses parallel the seventy facets of Torah; each 'speaks' to one of the seventy characteristics with which G-d has populated the world. (It may also be suggested that each of the seventy offerings of Tabernacles atoned for the trespasses of each of these seventy national characteristics present within Israel, and consequently the nations of the world benefited from this universal atonement).<br />
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Israel, as the spiritual model of the world, was to demonstrate within itself that eminence is within reach of every nation; that every type of person can live a Torah life. <br />
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Therefore, a significant portion of Jewish life revolves around the number seventy to symbolize that every national trait can become harnessed for holy purposes.<ref>Artscroll Bereshis, Vol 1, p. 309</ref><br />
<br />
== Table of Nations ==<br />
<br />
The majority of Palestinian and Babylonian scholars considered the ethnological table to be a simple historical narrative, enumerating, without any pretense to completeness, the descendants of Noah, and indicating the places they had chosen for their respective residences. This is clearly expressed by R. Huna of Sepphoris, who, interpreting Canticles 6:8 as an allusion to the nations and their languages, says: "Sixty and eighty are one hundred and forty. Of these, there are seventy nations, each of which possesses a separate language but not a separate script, and seventy other nations, each of which possesses both a separate language and a separate script; as to the nations which possess neither a separate language nor a separate script, they are numberless" (Cant. R. l.c.). In a later midrash, the "Midrash ha-Gadol," it is inferred from Cant. vi. 8 that there were only sixty original nations, eliminating from the ethnological table the ten nations descended from Japheth, Gomer, Javan, Ham, Cush, Raamah, Shem, Mizraim, Aram, and Joktan. As to the languages, the "Midrash ha-Gadol" counts seventy-two, as do the Christian authorities. "The total number of the countries that the children of Noah divided among their descendants was 104; of islands, 99; of languages, 72; and of scripts, 16. To the share of Japheth fell 44 countries, 33 islands, 22 languages, and 5 scripts; Ham received 34 countries, 33 islands, 24 languages, and 5 scripts; Shem, 26 countries, 33 islands, 26 languages, and 6 scripts."<br />
<br />
The haggadic assumption that there are seventy nations and languages in the world is based upon the ethnological table given in Genesis 10, where seventy grandsons of Noah are enumerated, each of whom became the ancestor of a nation. The earlier Christian writers also took this table as determining the number of existing nations and languages; but reckoning with the Septuagint, which counts seventy-two grandsons of Noah, there must be seventy-two nations and languages (see Augustine, "De Civitate Dei"; Anio, in his commentary on the second book of Berosus; comp. Azariah dei Rossi, "Me'or 'Enayim, Imre Binah," xlviii.). The Haggadah seems to have followed in this case the theory of the Hellenists, who regarded the ethnological table as a scientific and complete division of mankind into three races, distributed among three separate zones. This theory is expounded in the Book of Jubilees; "and at the beginning of the thirty-third jubilee they divided the earth into three parts between Shem, Ham, and Japheth, according to their inheritance" (ch. viii.).<br />
<br />
==Enumerating the Nations==<br />
<br />
There is some disagreement as to how the count of seventy nations is to be derived from the following verses. A counting of the names -- including Shem, Cham and Yafet, will reveal a total of seventy-four.<br />
<br />
The common system (following Pesikta Zutresa; Torah Sheleimah 9:110) of ascribing 14 nations to Yafet; 30 to Cham; and 26 to Shem, totaling seventy. Shem, Cham and Yafet themselves are omitted as are the Philistines who, according to Genesis 10:14 are designated as a mixed race.<br />
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Others include the Philistines but omit Nimrod from whom a separate nation did not descend. <br />
<br />
Yalkut Shimoni<ref>Yalkut Shimoni 61</ref> attributes 15 nations to Yafet, 32 to Cham, and 27 to Shem, totaling 74. However, Shem, Arpachshad, Shelach and Ever were too righteous to be counted among the general, leaving the total again at 70.<br />
<br />
==Identifications==<br />
<br />
Attempts were made by the Rabbis to identify those nations which were not known to the average reader. The Targumim to Genesis 10 and I Chron. i., both the Palestinian and the Babylonian Talmuds, and various midrashim, interpret many of the names of the Biblical nations in the light of their geographical and ethnological knowledge. The links below list the rabbinical identifications according to Samuel Krauss, the second column giving the countries or places with which the various "nations" are associated.<br />
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The sons of Shem were not identified by the Rabbis because they were known, and of the Canaanite nations only the following places are given: Arthasia (city in Phenicia); Gebalene (in Idumea); Acra (in the Lebanon); Aradno (in Phenicia); Emesa (in Syria); Epiphania (in Syria); Callirhoe (to the east of the Dead Sea); Sidon; Tripoli (Phenicia); Cyprus.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Enumerating the Seventy Nations]]<br />
*[[The Geography of the Seventy Nations]]<br />
*[[Attributes of the Seventy Nations]]<br />
*[[The 70 Gates]] - An attempt to define all seventy religions based on Rabbi Benemozegh's approach<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references /></div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=How_to_become_a_Noahite&diff=4625How to become a Noahite2007-04-11T00:09:14Z<p>HaNoahide: /* How to become a Noahide */ spelling</p>
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<div>In the Talmud, and codified by Maimonides, it is written that it is not sufficient for a non-Jew to just keep the seven laws in order to "have a portion in the world to come".<br />
<br />
As Maimonides says:<br />
:Everyone who accepts the seven commandments and is careful to perform them – this person is of the ''[[Chasidei Umos HaOlam]]'', and he has a portion in the world to come. He accepts them and performs them because they were commanded by the ''[[Kodosh Baruch Hu]]'' revealed to us by the hand of Moshe Rabbenu that the ''[[Bnei Noah]]'' were previously commanded in these things.<ref>Mishne Torah: Laws of Kings 8:11</ref><br />
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He also says:<br />
:One who accepts these [basic laws] is called: ''[[Ger Toshav]]'' in every place, and he must accept [these laws] on himself in front of three judges. And all who have taken upon themselves to circumcise, and twelve months have past without circumcision – this person becomes like other nations [who have not accepted the Noahide laws].<ref>Mishne Torah: Laws of Kings 8:10</ref><br />
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A translation of Maimonides may be found [[Maimonides' Law of Noahides#Laws of Kings and their Wars' Chapter 8|here]]. (Please remember when reading other laws of Maimonides that he is only one authority, and other great Rabbis have given their opinions. Not all of Maimonides opinions have been accepted as ''halacha'').<br />
<br />
==Are You a Noahide Already?==<br />
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All of humanity are 'children of Noah' by definition, so the question is really "are you an observant Noahide?" (i.e. one who is promised a share in the world to come). <br />
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One answer is that many religions and legal systems come very close to qualifying as living up to the Noahide standard, but fall short on a few areas. So by supplementing or reforming an existing faith, one may live up to the Noahide requirements. Some Rabbis are of the opinion that reforming and correcting existing national faiths is the highest form of Noahide.<ref>Rabbi Yosef Gikkitila, Rabbi Nathaniel ibn Fayumi, Rabbi Ovadiah Seforno, Rabbi Menachem Meiri, Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, Rabbi Yaakov Emden, Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes, Rabbi Israel Lipschutz, Rabbi Elijah Benamozegh, Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, Rabbi Jonathan Sacks, Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz</ref> For example Aime Palliere, a Noahide taught by Rabbi [[Elijah Benamozegh]], remained a Roman Catholic and continued going to church (albeit with a modifed intepretation).<ref>"The Unknown Sanctuary" by Aime Palliere.</ref><br />
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Alternatively, another approach is to join one of the many communities of Noahides worldwide. These communities are best for people who have fallen out with establish religion and wish to take on some of the Jewish customs. Some Rabbis are of the opinion existing religions are beyond repair, or that Noahides are forbidden from creating a religion. They feel that taking on a voluntary set of customs, untainted by idolatry, is the highest form of Noahide.<ref>Rabbi Shlomo ben Yitzhak (Rashi), Maimonides, Rabbi Yehudah ben Betzalel Loewe (Maharal), Rabbi Isaac Luria, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Chabad), Rabbi Zevi Yehudah Kook, Rabbi Yoel Schwartz</ref><br />
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==How to become a Noahide==<br />
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To become an observant Noahide is to be assured of a 'portion in the world to come' by entering into a covenant with G-d, of which the Jewish people are also a part. It is to enter into a recognized relationship with the Jewish people, rather than being completely outside of any legal system recognized by Judaism. <br />
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The requirements are generally considered:<br />
# To enter into the Covenant of Noah (decide to be a good person<ref>Based on Maimonides use of the word "accept" (''המקבל'')</ref>)<br />
# To follow the commandments of G-d (keep the seven laws)<br />
# To become part of one of 'seventy' legal systems (necessary for the seventh law)<br />
# And to accept the 'rabbinic' interpretation of scripture. (keep the above laws for the right reasons)<ref>At least concerning the existance of the seven laws. There are differing rabbinic opinions whether recognizing rabbinic tradition is required, some hold that accepting these seven laws as 'divine' is enough.</ref><br />
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Once one makes this step, the 'size' of one's portion in the world to come is determined by prayer, repentance, good deeds and good character. This may sound very similar to the teaching of other religions, particularly within the Abrahamic tradition, and it should be so. Judaism teaches that the Noahide covenant is the foundation of any proper society and religion.<br />
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According to the [[Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah]], to achieve formal status, a non-Jew today has to make a declaration before a ''[[Rabbinical Court|Beis Din]]'' of Jews. According to many authorities<ref>Maimonides holds that the declaration is only required for a Ger Toshav. He holds that Ger Toshav only applies to those who live in Israel under a sovereign Jewish (Torah) State, others disagree. According to many authorities, there is value to the declaration of a person before a rabbinical court even outside of Israel.</ref>, there is value to the declaration of a person before a rabbinical court — ''beis din'' — that he or she accept and takes upon himself or herself the mitzvos of Bnei Noah. Therefore it is incumbent upon the ''beis din'' to accept such declarations from almost anyone who wants to make them.<br />
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==The Noahide Declaration==<br />
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According to the [[Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah]], the ''beis din'' facilitates declarations to allow Noahides to have a deeper and potentially more rewarding religious experience. This is according to the teaching that someone who observes a commandment after being obligated to do so is greater [perhaps: 'receives a greater reward'] than someone who voluntarily decides to keep a commandment whenever he or she fells like doing so.<br />
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The Noahide stands before the ''beis din'' and makes a declaration of intent. This is not an oath, and there is currently no way to enforce compliance by the ''beis din''. This is the most minimal form of declaration that can be made. In the [[Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah]], after making the declaration, the ''beis din'' gives out a certificates saying that such-and-such person made such a declaration. Nothing more is written on the certificate. The declaration expresses intent on the part of the applicant to uphold Noahide law. It does not imply in any way that the beis din agrees with the applicant's actions, understanding, or approach to Noahide law.<br />
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Noahide declarations are often based on the wording of Maimonides:<br />
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To be a ''Chasidei Umos HaOlam'', Righteous Gentile:<br />
# '''I accept''' — the authority of G-d in giving<br />
# '''The seven commandments''' — which are: Prohibition of Idolatry, Prohibition of Blasphemy, Prohibition of Homicide, Prohibition of Sexual Immorality, Prohibition of Theft, Prohibition of Limb of a Living Creature, Imperative of Legal System.<br />
# '''I will be careful''' — in all their subdivisions and details, including ''dinim'' — the laws of the courts<br />
# '''To perform them''' — to live my life in such a way as not to break these laws.<br />
# '''Because they were commanded by G-d''' — I recognize the spiritual component of these laws, including spiritual reward and punishment.<br />
# '''Revealed to us by the hand of Moshe Rabbenu''' — through Rabbinic tradition.<ref>alternatively, "as written in the Bible"</ref><br />
# '''That we were previously commanded in these things''' — reaffirming the ancient law & covenant)<br />
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To be a ''Ger Toshav'', Partial Convert<br />
# '''I accept [these laws] on myself in front of three judges''' — I recognize and submit to the authority of this court.<br />
# '''This is in "every place"''' — which some authorities understand to mean local rabbinical judges anywhere in the world.<br />
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One must remember that unlike 'conversion' to Christianity or Islam, the Noahide declaration is not a conversion process — It is not marked with some right of passage, nor with some interrogation of proper dogma or belief — rather it is a declaration of intent to uphold the seven laws and their details, to become part of the jurisdiction of his/her nation's Noahide courts, and acceptance of the authority of Rabbinic tradition in these matters.<br />
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The wording used in various Noahide pledges differs greatly, for example the [[Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah]] at one time used this declaration:<br />
<br />
:"I pledge my allegiance to HaShem, G-d of Israel, Creator and King of the Universe, to His Torah and its representatives, the developing Sanhedrin. I hereby pledge to uphold the Seven Laws of Noah in all their details, according to Oral Law of Moses under the guidance of the developing Sanhedrin. May HaShem bless and aid me, and all B'nai Noach in all our endeavors for the sake of His name. Blessed are You G-d, King of the universe, who has caused me to live, sustained me, and brought me to this day."<ref>This should be replaced with the Jerusalem Court's actual wording</ref><br />
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==Becoming a Noahide or Converting to Judaism==<br />
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As far as becoming an observant Noahide or converting to Judaism goes, these are two very different paths. Besides the obvious differences, there is the question of legal jurisdiction. A convert intends to be under the complete authority of the Jewish court of law as interpreted by the Jewish court system. A Noahide must place himself under the authority of his nations' Noahide courts, and be a good national. Just as a convert should seek the welfare of the Jewish nation (as Ruth said "your people will be my people..."), a Noahide should seek the welfare of his nation. In the Talmud (Bava Kama 38a), it is written that like the Jews, the Noahide nations have also been sent into exile because they didn't keep their part of the covenant. Some understand this to mean that they must find themselves and who they are. Like the Jews, they too have a mission and purpose in this world.<br />
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==Which 'Nation' do you belong to?==<br />
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There are those that claim that it is important that a Noahide declares the court system he/she is following, in addition to his pledge of upholding the seven laws. This is because it is impossible to uphold the [[Imperative of Legal System]] without belonging to a legal system.<br />
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Rabbi [[Yaakov Anatoli]] (1194-1256) in ''HaMelamed'' put it this way:<br />
<br />
:When the Noahites were enjoined concerning Justice, they were put under obligation to create legal arrangements .... It is incumbent on the judges to draw up rules of equity that shall be appropriate for that particular country, as exemplified by the manner in which this matter is handled currently by the nations, severally. Likewise, it is incumbent upon merchants and upon the members of the trades to establish regulations for themselves... and whatever emerges as the law in this manner is law, as much as that which is written in the Bible. Furthermore, anyone violating this law violates Scripture, because Scripture commands the individual to accept the decisions of the contemporary jurists. The dictum, "The law of the land is the Law," relates to this concept.<ref>Quoted by Reuben Margolioth, Margolioth Hayarn. Jerusalem: Mosad Harav Kook, 1958, volume 11, page 20. (Sanhedrin 56b, section 9.)</ref><br />
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==Finding a Rabbinical Court==<br />
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Have you contacted Chabad in your area? They are usually open to Noahide issues.<br />
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Is it possible for you to travel to Jerusalem to meet with the [[Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah]]?<br />
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Is it possible to assemble a [[Rabbinical Court|Beis Din]] of observant Jews in your area to listen to your declaration?<br />
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==Registering==<br />
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There are some rabbinic opinions that one must observe the [[Seven Laws]] as a binding legal requirement. For Noahides in the United States, one way to do this is to register with the the [[United Noachide Council, Inc.|United Noachide Council]]. The UNC functions as a complementary court system to the United States court system, and is registered to handle certain legal cases. The intention is to allow a Noahide to fulfill the Noahide Covenant and ''in all your ways know G-d''(Proverbs 3:6). The idea being that even something as simple as stopping for a red traffic light, when done with the correct intention, can be a ''mitvah'' with spiritual reward.<br />
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Please fill out the following information and send it to the UNC:<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
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The UNC is working in other countries to set up complementary court systems, to make up for the lack where those countries legal systems have fallen short of the basic requirements for the proper functioning of society and religion.<br />
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==References ==<br />
<references /></div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=Islam_and_Noahite_Law&diff=4047Islam and Noahite Law2007-03-19T09:09:07Z<p>HaNoahide: </p>
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<div>There has been much less halachic literature written about Islam compared to Christianity. It has been suggested that this is due, in part, to the fact there has not been in the way of substantial polemics directed at Islam.<ref>Much of this article is based on 'Islam and the halacha'' in ''Judaism: A Quarterly Journal of Jewish Life and Thought'', 6/22/1993, Author: Shapiro, Marc B.</ref> Almost all halachic authorities follow Maimonides and rule that Islam is not idolatry. Many halachic authorities disagree with Maimonides and rule that Muslims enjoy, at least in part, the status of a ''[[Ger Toshav]]''. Although concerning both these points there are major halachic authorities with dissenting opinions. The most serious issues with Islam from a Noahide point of view is the non-acceptance of Jewish scriptures and the "[[replacement theology]]" of the Prophethood of Muhammed.<br />
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==Islam and the halachah==<br />
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According to Jewish Law, both Jews and non-Jews are forbidden to worship idols, a category which also includes certain forms of polytheism. This prohibition is required as part of the [[Seven Laws]] of Noah. Once the doctrine of the Trinity became known to the ''rabbonim'', it was generally regarded as polytheism, although with some exceptions. In the last few hundred years with the Christian reformation, the emergance of non-trinitarian movements, and appearance for the first time of "Noahides" a great deal of responsa has been written in this matter. Partly this is to a closer examination of theological issues, and partly this had to do with dealing with the diversity of thought that had sprung up within Christian and former Christian groups. Early authorities characterized Islam as idolatrous, based on early rulings concerning Christianity and whatever information was available concerning of the emerging faith. <br />
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===Midrashim===<br />
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There was a widespread perception that an idol was to be found in the Ka'aba. For example ''Midrash Lekah Tov'' regarded Mecca as the name of an Islamic idol<ref>Midrash Lekah Tov (Jerusalem, 1960), Vol. 2, p. 250</ref> Based on this this R. Menahem Meiri, R. Abraham Sofer (son of the Hatam Sofer) and ''Sefer ha-Eshkol'' rule that it was forbidden to drink or even obtain benefit from wine handled by a Muslim. According to them, there was no difference in the halachic status of wine handled by a Muslim or an idolater.<ref>See R. Menahem Meiri, Bet ha-Behirah: Avodah Zarah, Abraham Sofer, ed. (Jerusalem, 1964), p. 214 (quoting R. Joseph ibn Migash), and Sefer ha-Eshkol, Z.B. Auerbach, ed. (Halberstadt, 1865), section 3, p. 150.</ref> ''Simhah Assaf''<ref>Simhah Assaf, ed., Teshuvot ha-Geonim (Jerusalem, 1929), no. 266,</ref> rules that wine handled by a Muslim is forbidden for use as if it was touched by a Christian. However, from the reason given in this responsum, one cannot conclude that a Muslim was viewed as an idolater. Nahmanides made a distinction between Muslim wine and Jewish wine which was touched by a Muslim. Also based on this, some ''achronim'' like the ''Birkei Yosef''<ref>R. Hayyim Joseph David Azulai, Birkei Yosef: Shiyure Berachah (Jerusalem, no date), Yoreh Deah 122: 1.</ref> and the ''Tashbez''<ref>R. Simeon ben Zemah Duran, She'elot u-Teshuvot Tashbez (Lemberg, 1891), vol. 2, no. 48</ref> ruled that the practice was not to receive any benefit from wine handled by a Muslim.<br />
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===Geonim===<br />
<br />
Most of the ''geonim'' held that Islam was not idolatry, however they did bring another factor into play. The Talmud gives another reason to prohibit the drinking of wine, the need to prevent socialization with non-Jews, apparently even non-idolatrous ones.<ref>need source</ref> Based on this R. Zemah Gaon ruled that even though one could benefit from Muslim wine, it was still unfit to be drunk by a Jew.<ref>Hemdah Genuzah (Jerusalem, 1863), no. 114.</ref> Similar rulings were also made by Geonim Kohen Zedek,<ref>Joel Muller, ed., Halachot Pesukot min ha- Geonim (Cracow, 1893), no. 25.</ref> Sar Shalom,<ref>David Casell, ed., Teshuvot Geonim Kadmonim (Bnei Brak, 1986), no. 46.</ref> Nahshon,<ref>Simha Hasida, ed., Shibbolei ha-Leket (Jerusalem, 1988), Vol. 2, p. 20.</ref> and other important rabbonim.<ref>See the sources quoted by Hanoch Albeck in the notes to his edition of Sefer ha-Eshkol (Jerusalem, 1938), pp. 77-78.</ref> However, R' Yizhak Rafael in his Sefer ha-Manhig, ruled that such wine was permissible for drinking.<ref>See Yizhak Rafael, ed., Sefer ha-Manhig (Jerusalem, 1978), Vol. 2, p. 660, and Albeck, loc. cit. Rabbenu Nissim, She'elot u-Teshuvot R. Nissim ben Gerondi, ed. Kleon Feldman (Jerusalem, 1984), p. 45</ref> He says that "perhaps it is permissible" to drink Muslim wine in a setting not conducive to socializing. <br />
<br />
See the sources in Mayim Hayyim<ref>Mayim Hayyim (Jerusalem, 1985), Vol. 2, Yoreh Deah, no. 66, by the late Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Haifa, R. Joseph Messas</ref> where it is explained why certain authorities disregard the Geonic view that permits one only to obtain benefit from this wine but does not allow one to drink it. "There is no unity [of G-d] like the unity found in Islam; therefore, one who forbids [drinking] wine which they have handled turns holy into profane by regarding worshippers of G-d as worshippers of idols, G-d forbid."<ref>See p. 159</ref> On the other hand, kabbalists like R. Joseph Hayyim, tried to show that Islamic monotheism was far removed from the monotheism of Judaism<ref>See, e.g., R. Joseph Hayyim, Da'at u-Tevunah (Jerusalem, 1965), pp. 25b-26a.</ref><br />
<br />
The basis for these rulings was the concensus of halachic opinion by the Gaonim that Islam as a religion was not to be regarded as idolaty. However, since all of these Geonim were concerned with a specific halachic issue, they did not rule on any of the larger questions which deal with the relation of Judaism to Islam. The Geonic responsa in general show great regard for Islamic ''shaaria'' law<ref>see H.Z. Hirschberg, "Archaot shel Goyim Biyemei ha-Geonim," in S.J. Zevin and Zerab Warhaftig, eds., Mazkeret (Jerusalem, 1962), pp. 493-506.</ref><br />
<br />
===Rishonim===<br />
<br />
Maimonides strongly put forth the view that Muslims were not idolaters. Although, to be sure, Islam was heresy,<ref>See Hilchot Teshuvah 3:8 (uncensored version).</ref> this did not stop Maimonides from expressing a positive view about Islam - or even about Christianity, which he considered to be idolatry.<ref>Regarding Christianity, see the uncensored versions of his commentary to Mishnah Avodah Zarah 1:3 and Hilchot Akum 9:4.</ref> He ruled that although Islam and Christianity are both in error, they still have some value in that they prepare the world eventually to accept the sovereignty of G-d<ref> Hilchot Melachim 11:4 (uncensored version): All those words of Jesus of Nazareth and of this Ishmaelite [i.e., Muhammed] who arose after him are only to make straight the path for the messianic king and to prepare the whole world to serve the Lord together. As it is said: "For then I will change the speech of the peoples to a pure speech so that all of them shall call on the name of the Lord and serve him with one accord" (Zephaniah 3:9) </ref><br />
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In Maimonides' system there was one point on which Christianity, although idolatrous, actually stood above Islam. The Talmud states that it is forbidden to teach Torah to non-Jews, and this interdiction is clasified as halacha by Maimonides. However, he makes an exception for Christians, because they believe in the same text of the Bible as the Jews and it is thus possible that, after having studied, they will recognize the error of their ways. For Muslims, however, because they do not accept that the five books of Moses are Divine, such a possibility is not to be considered. It is, therefore, forbidden to teach them Torah.<ref>Teshuvot ha-Rambam, ed., Joshua Blau (Jerusalem, 1989), no. 149.</ref><br />
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However from this ruling, one can conclude nothing about the basic worth of Christianity vis-a-vis Islam. The prohibition to teach Torah to Muslims was due to the specific reason cited, and did not speak to any of the broader issues involved in evaluating their religion. In appears that it is Islam that was more favorable in Maimonides' eyes. As we have seen, according to him, both Christianity and Islam have a positive role to play in the world. However, with regard to Islam, despite certain critical comments regarding Muhammed,<ref> A.S. Halkin, ed., Moses Maimonides' Epistle to Yemen (New York, 1952), pp. 14, 36. Maimonides also refers to Muhammad as "the unfit one" (pasul), see Ibid., p. 38. See also Yehuda Shamir, "Allusions to Muhammed in Maimonides' Theory of Prophecy in his Guide," Jewish Quarterly Review 54 (1974): 212-224, and George F. Hourani, "Maimonides and Islam," in William M. Brinner and Stephen D. Ricks, eds., Studies in Islamic and Judaic Traditions (Atlanta, 1986), pp. 153-158; Netanel b. Isaiah, Maor ha-Afelah, ed., Joseph Kafah (Jerusalem, 1957), p. 121; Hayyim Vital as quoted in Saul Cohen, Lehem ha-Bikkurim [reprinted Bnei Brak, 1981], appendix, p. 14.</ref> the fact that Islam is not idolatry creates a crucial distinction between it and Christianity and leads to numerous consequences, both in law and theology. [[David Novak]] argues that this explains Malmonides' belief that Muslims, as sons of Ishmael, are required to circumcize their sons.<ref>Hilchot Melachim 10:8; David Novak, "The Treatment of Islam and Muslims in the Legal Writings of Maimonides," in Brinner and Ricks, Op. cit., pp. 240ff.</ref> Maimonides rules that although a Jew may not obtain benefit from wine handled by a Christian, that is not the case with regard to a Muslim. However, Maimonides does agree with the view of the Geonim that it is still not permissible to drink this wine. According to Maimonides, this ruling was supported by "all the Geonim"<ref>Hilchot Ma'achalot Asurot 11:7; Teshuvot ha- Rambam, no. 269</ref> According to R. Asher of Montanzon<ref>R. Asher of Montanzon (14th century), Sefer ha-Pardes (Jerusalem, 1985), p. 6</ref> Maimonides saw the works of "all the Geonim." The Radbaz was of the same opinion <ref>R. David ibn Zimra (1479-1573), She'elot u- Teshuvot Radbaz (New York, no date), no. 281, and Azulai, Birkei Yosef, Yoreh Deah 16:3.</ref> However, it is not clear that this really means "all" as there were Geonim who do not agree with this position<ref>Cf. Tur, Yoreh Deah, 124</ref>, Nahmanides says that "some Geonim" agree with the law as codified by Maimonides.<ref>Nahmanides, Hiddushei ha-Ramban to Avodah Zarah, ed., M. Hershler jerusalem, 1970), column 237</ref> and, as we have already noted, this stringency had nothing to do with Islam as a religion but was to prevent socialization with non-Jews generally.<br />
<br />
===Ovadiyah the Proselyte===<br />
<br />
Maimonides further explains his view regarding Islam in a letter that he wrote to a certain Ovadiyah the Proselyte, who, having previously been a Muslim, certainly knew the particulars of the religion, and had declared that it was not idolatry. Because of his opinion, he was repremanded by his teacher, who claimed that the Islamic religious service at Mecca was idolatrous in that it involved the ritual of throwing stones which constituted worship of ''Merkulius.'' The identification of Islamic worship at Mecca with an idolatrous cult of ''Merkulius'' was very common in the Middle Ages, see R. Asher ben Yehiel.<ref>R. Asher ben Yehiel's Teshuvot [Jerusalem, 1981], 5:2</ref> Regarding this responsum, see Isaac Herzog, Pesakim u-Khetavim<ref>R. Isaac Herzog, Pesakim u-Khetavim [Jerusalem, 1990], vol. 4, no. 49</ref>. Historians have claimed, but offered no evidence, for the contention that some Jewish scholars were influenced by Christian notions that also identified the idolatrous worship of ''Merkulius'' with the Islamic worship at Mecca.<ref>See Jose Faur 's ''Iyyunim ba-Mishneh Torah le-ha-Rambam'' (Jerusalem, 1978), p. 236, note 54. This has been analyzed at great length by Bernard Septimus, see bibliography</ref><br />
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However Maimonides' supported Ovadiyah over his teacher.<br />
<br />
:The Ishmaelites are not at all idolaters; [idolatry] has long been severed from their mouths and hearts; and they attribute to G-d a proper unity, a unity concerning which there is no doubt. And because they lie about us, and falsely attribute to us the statement that G-d has a son, is no reason for us to lie about them and say that they are idolaters . . . And should anyone say that the house that they honor [the Kaaba] is a house of idolatry and an idol is hidden within it, which their ancestors used to worship, then what of it? The hearts of those who bow down toward it today are [directed] only toward Heaven . . . [Regarding] the Ishmaelites today - idolatry has been severed from the mouths of all of them [including] women and children. Their error and foolishness is in other things which cannot be put into writing because of the renegades and wicked among Israel [i.e., apostates]. But as regards the unity of G-d they have no error at all.<br />
<br />
R. Hayyim Benveniste,<ref>Dina de-Hayya (Constantinople, 1742), Vol. 1, pp. 51a- 51b</ref> points out that Maimonides' view of Islam explains why he was able to act as a physician in Egypt. Had Islam been idolatrous, he would not have been permitted to do so, since he codifies that "it is forbidden to give medical aid to an idolater even for hire"<ref> (Hilchot Akum 10:2).</ref><br />
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===Islamic practice no longer idolatrous===<br />
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Maimonides then discusses the practice of throwing stones and rules that, despite its origin, it was no longer idolatrous. He concludes: "The long and short of it is that even though at their root these things were established for idolatry, not a man in the world throws these stones or bows down to that place or does any of the rites for the sake of idolatry - neither verbally nor mentally; their heart is rather surrendered to Heaven."<ref>Teshuvot ha-Rambam, no. 448. I have used the translation in Septimus, Op. cit., pp. 522-523, which contains a number of valuable notes.</ref><br />
<br />
Maimonides' son, R. Abraham, who took his father's view to its logical conclusion when he argued that, although Islamic religious practices should not be imitated, strictly speaking they do not fall under the Biblical prohibition of following the ways of the Gentiles. This is so simply because "Muslims are monotheists who abhor idolatry."<ref>See S. Eppenstein, Abraham Maimuni, Sain Leben und Seine Schriften (Berlin, 1914), p. 17, note 1; Gerson D. Cohen, "The Soteriology of R. Abraham Maimuni," Proceedings of the American Academy of Jewish Research 35 (1967), pp. 85-86.</ref><br />
<br />
===Forced Conversion to Islam===<br />
<br />
Also important for understanding Maimonides' view of Islam is a well known letter than he wrote around the year 1165, when he was still a resident of Fez, having not yet travelled to Erez Yisrael and Egypt. It was addressed to the inhabitants of Morocco, who had been threatened by the Almohads with conversion, exile, or death. It so happened that an anonymous scholar who had been living outside of the Almohads' reach had issued a ruling that Islam was idolatry and that, therefore, one must give up his life rather than convert to Islam. If one did not, he was to be treated as no different than a true apostate. This ruling created somewhat of a storm among the crypto-Jews of Morocco, and it was in response to this confusion that Maimonides wrote his letter, which was a marvelous defense of a Jewish community that was forced to hide its religion because of persecution.<ref>Regarding the debate as to whether Maimonides himself was a crypto-Jew while be lived in Fez, see the recent discussion by Jay Harris, "Maimonides in 19th Century Historiography," Proceedings of the American Academy of Jewish Research 54 (1987), pp. 133ff.</ref><br />
<br />
Rabbi Haym Soloveitchik's discussed at length the issues involved.<ref>Maimonides' Iggeret Ha-Shemad: Law and Rhetoric," in Leo Landman, ed., Rabbi Joseph H. Lookstein Memorial Volume (New York, 1980), pp. 284ff.</ref> However, one thing which appears to be sure, is that it was the Maimonidean acceptance of Islam's monotheistic character that enabled him to come to the defense of the crypto-Jews, even if he does not argue this point explicitly. Either he felt that this notion was so obvious, he did not feel the need to defend it. Alternatively, one could say that his refusal to argue the case that Islam is not idolatry was because he regarded the crypto-Jews as never having truly accepted the religion in the first place and, therefore, his argument was able to proceed along a different line, one which argues that, even assuming that Islam is idolatry, the Jews still have not violated the idolatry prohibition.<ref>See Soloveitchik, Op. cit., pp. 286-287.</ref> However, had the Jews truly accepted Islam, one could probably have expected Maimonides to argue that, whereas the Jews may have been heretics, they were not idolaters. By assuming that the Jews never adopted Islam, Maimonides can argue the way that he does.<br />
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However, Rabbi Soloveitchik argues that, since Maimonides identifies the denial of prophecy with idolatry, "why should the Shahadah, with its assertion of the primacy of Mohammed's prophecy, not be on a similar footing? The contemporary nature of Judaism changes little whether one asserts that there never was a revelation or whether one claims that it occurred but is now outmoded. Both statements would seem to be equally treasonable" (pp. 285-286). The Magen Avraham, <ref>Orah Hayyim 128:37</ref>, who argues that, at least in one respect, Maimonides equates conversion to Islam with idolatry.<br />
<br />
Some authorities, after Maimonides, who, while clearly aware of the monotheistic nature of Islam, still disagreed with Maimonides' position, and asserted that Jews must give up their lives rather than be forced to convert to Islam. Their rationale was based on the fact that if one gives his agreement to Muhammed's prophetic mission, this is the equivalent of denying the validity of Torah. According to this opinion it is a capital offence to deny the Torah,<ref>Cf. Soloveitchik, Op. cit., p. 285.</ref> and they thus viewed idolatry as merely a manifestation of this denial. R. David ibn Zimra quotes the renowned R. Yom Tov Ishbili (c. 1250-1330) as holding to this view and expresses agreement with him.<ref>She'elot u-Teshuvot Radbaz, nos. 344, 1163. See also R. Jacob Emden, Migdal Oz (Jerusalem, 1969), p. 28b. The halachic status of a convert to Islam with regards to marriage, divorce and ''yebum'', is a complicated issue. For the Geonic opinions on the matter, see B.M. Lewin, Ozar ha-Geonim to Yevamot (Jerusalem, 1984), pp. 34-37.</ref><br />
<br />
===Muslim as Ger Toshav===<br />
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If Muslims are not idolators, then why are they not [[Ger Toshav]]? Maimonides was of the opinion that a Muslim cannot be a [[Ger Toshav]],<ref>Hilchot Melachim 8:11.</ref> because it is forbidden for a non-Jews to create a religion. He rules according to the view that any non-Jewish religious system is illicit and the only alternatives for non-Jews are conversion or observance of the Seven Laws of Noah. This ruling by Maimonides is understood by many commentators to exclude any other religious system by definition.<ref>Hilchot Melachim 10:9 (and see the analysis of R. Zvi Hirsch Chajes, Kol Sifrei Maharatz Chajes [Jerusalem, 1958], Vol. 2, p. 1036). This crucial point was overlooked by Novak, Op. cit., pp. 233ff. It is true that Chajes expresses a much more tolerant viewpoint in Op. cit., Vol. 1, pp. 483-491; however, this section was written in response to the 1840 Damascus Affair, and its apologetic nature does not appear to reflect Chajes' true opinion.</ref><br />
<br />
Although almost all ''achronim'' agree with Maimonides that Islam is not idolatry, most disagree that any non-Jewish religious system is illicit by definition. Rather than being seen as a religion in itself, most authorities hold that the Seven Laws are foundation of a proper religion.<br />
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===Rabbi Nissim Gerondi===<br />
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In a medieval commentary attributed to the famous sage, Rabbi Nissim Gerondi (c. 1310-1375), but possibly written by another scholar, one finds R. Nissim's discussion of Christians bowing to holy objects and Muslims bowing to Muhammed. Although the comment is not entirely clear, it appears to be saying that even though the Muslims do not turn Muhammed into a G-d, one must regard their actions of bowing down to him as idolatry, thus putting them in the category of idolaters.<ref>Hiddushei ha-Ran (Jerusalem, 1958), to Sanhedrin 61b. Benveniste, Op. cit., p. 20a, says that R. Nissim's view is "a great novelty." See also P'ri Hadash, Yoreh Deah, 19:6.</ref> This is a complete reversal Maimonides' view and it is unusual that there would be no reference to Maimonides' position. In any event, we have reason to believe that R. Nissim did not hold to this view, and we are in possession of a responsum of his in which he declares unambiguously that Islam is not a form of idolatry.<ref>She'elot u-Teshuvot R. Nissim ben Gerondi, p. 45. R. Nissim repeats this view in his commentary to Alfasi, Avodah Zarah, p. 26b in the Alfasi pages.</ref> Although some scholars have attempted to reconcile these two views, for example R. Eliezer Waldenberg.<ref>R. Eliezer Waldenberg, Ziz Eliezer (Jerusalem, 1990), vol. 18, no. 47</ref><br />
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===Halachic Rulings===<br />
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====Benefiting From or Drinking Wine handled by Muslims====<br />
<br />
This question has been dealt with above.<br />
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====The Hajj, Facing Mecca and Shechitah====<br />
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As late as the fifteenth century, we find that R. Simeon ben Zemah Duran (''Tashbez'') ruled that Islam itself was not idolatrous.<ref>She'elot u-Teshuvot Tashbez, vol. 2, no. 48.</ref> but he also ruled that a shohet to was not permitted to slaughter animals while facing Mecca.<ref>Ibid., vol. 3, no. 133.</ref> because he regarded the Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca as being of an idolatrous nature.<ref>Keshet u-Magen (Jerusalem, 1970), p. 19b.</ref> Of course, there is a difference between the view of the ''Tashbez'' and R. Nissim quoted above. Where the ''Tashbez'' was concerned with the remnants of the pre-Islamic period, R. Nissim's objection appears to be directed at what he considered to be pure Islam, not including any pre-Islamic pagan remnants. <br />
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R. Solomon ben Adret (c. 1235-c. 1310), ruled however, that although he regarded the practice as distasteful, would not prohibit.<ref>She'elot u-Teshuvot Rashba (Bnei Brak, 1984), vol. 1, no. 345. </ref> This view was supported by R. David ibn Zimra (''Radbaz''),<ref>She'elot u-Teshuvot Radbaz, no. 162. He also adds an economic argument to buttress his case.</ref> and it was ruled as final halachah in the Shulhan Aruch.<ref>Yoreh Deah 4:7.</ref> However, none of these authorities quote a responsum by Maimonides, which agreed with the ''Tashbez''' position.<ref>See Azulai, Birkei Yosef, Yoreh Deah 4:3. See also Azulai, Mar'it ha-Ayin (Livorno, 1805), p. 79a, who notes that this responsum appears to be at odds with Maimonides' letter to Ovadiyah. This responsum does not appear in any of the collected responsa of Maimonides, and its authenticity is very questionable. See, however, R. Hayyim Benveniste, Keneset ha- Gedolah (Jerusalem, 1970), Yoreh Deah 4:14, that perhaps one must suffer martyrdom rather than accede to the Muslim demand.</ref> <br />
<br />
Rabbi Yisrael MeShklov, one of the leading disciples of the Vilna Gaon, in his addendum to the Shulchan Aruch called ''Mappat HaShulchan'' considered a situation that went one step further, in that the Muslims insisted that the Jewish shohet acknowledge Allah by proclaiming "Allahu akbar" when he slaughtered. R. Abraham Isaac Kook, not able to point to any explicit prohibition in this matter, also ruled that it is permissible to repeat the formula.<ref>Da'at Kohen [Jerusalem, 1985], no. 10. Regarding this practice, see also P'ri Hadash, Yoreh Deah, 19:6.</ref><br />
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====A Jew entering a Mosque====<br />
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What about a Jew entering a mosque? According to the halachah, a Jew is forbidden to enter a house of idolatry and, therefore, almost all halachic authorities forbid one from entering a church. Since Islam is not idolatrous, there should be no problem for a Jew to enter a mosque and, although no early halachists seem to discuss this question, the prevailing opinion of recent halachic authorities is to be lenient.<ref>See, e.g., R. Hayyim David Halevi, Aseh Lecha Rav (Tel Aviv, 1989), vol. 9, no. 13; and R. Israel Pesah Feinhandler, Avnei Yoshpeh (Jerusalem, 1989), no. 153.</ref> Similarly, one nineteenth century Ashkenazic authority permitted the conversion of a mosque to a synagogue without the "nullification" of idolatry that is required when converting a church into a synagogue,<ref>R. Isaac Elhanan Spektor, Ein Yizhak (Vilna, 1889), Orah Hayyim, no. 11.</ref> while another authority even permitted a Jew to assist in the building of a mosque.<ref>R. Eliezer Isaac of Volozhin, Hut ha-Meshulash (New York, 1965), no. 28. </ref> Nevertheless, a leading contemporary authority, basing himself on the previously cited view attributed to "R. Nissim," forbids visiting a mosque,<ref>Waidenberg, Ziz Eliezer (Jerusalem, 1985), vol. 14, no. 91.</ref> and this view is followed in a recent halachic work intended for a popular audience.<ref>Yishayah Shapiro, Zedah la-Derech (Alon Shvut, [1987?]), p. 274.</ref> Earlier in this century, one rabbi, using the previously cited views of R. Yom Tov Ishbili and R. David ibn Zimra, even went so far as to declare that, according to the halachah, all mosques in the Land of Israel had to be destroyed!<ref>R. Shemariah Menasseh Adler, Emek ha-Bacha (Kedainiai, Lithuania, 1935), Vol. 2, pp. 78-79.</ref><br />
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====Selling land to a Muslim====<br />
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According to a Mishnaic halachah, one is not permitted to sell land in Israel to a Gentile.<ref>Avodah Zarah 1:8.</ref> What is not clear is whether this prohibition applies to all Gentiles or only to idolaters. A number of authorities state that Muslims are definitely excluded from this prohibition since they enjoy, at least in part, the status of a ''[[Ger Toshav]]'' to whom it is permitted to sell land. For the same reason, it is permitted to give a Muslim a present (without expecting something in return), something which is forbidden to be done with an idolater.<ref>For these two leniencies, see, e.g., R. Eshtori ha-Parhi, Kaftor va-Ferah (Jerusalem, 1980), p. 28a; R. Meyubas ben Samuel, Mizbah Adamah (Salonika, 1777), p. 12a; R. Elijah Mani, Zichronot Eliyahu (Jerusalem, 1936), Yoreh Deah, ma'arechet gimel, no. 3; R. Abraham Isaac Kook, Mishpat Kohen (Jerusalem, 1985), nos. 60, 63, and 68; and R. Elijah Klatzkin, Imrei Shefer (Warsaw, 1896), no. 92. This view is held by many other leading authorities. Based upon this view, R. Moses ibn Habib, Kol Gadol; (Jerusalem, 1970), vol. 1, no. 60, permits one to entertain Muslims musically during their festivals, provided that the songs are in good taste.</ref> This view is the basis for the Israeli Chief Rabbinate's decision to "sell" the land of Israeli farmers in the Sabbatical year in order to circumvent the prohibition against cultivating the land during this year. As long as it is sold to a Muslim there is no problem.<ref>Of course, there are other considerations that came into play for the halachists who permitted the land to be sold. The most important of these relate to the halachists' attitude toward Zionism. However, it is not within the scope of this paper to go into this, as here we are only concerned with the impact of Islam on the halachah, not with a comprehensive analysis of how halachists arrive at specific decisions. For some recent comments on this question, see my review-essay, entitled "Sociology and Halachah," in Tradition, vol. 27, no. I Fall 1992).</ref><br />
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However, a number of prominent rabbinic authorities dispute this view, and assert that Muslims do not have the status of a ''[[Ger Toshav]]'' thus making it forbidden to sell them land or even give them a present.<ref>See, e.g., R. Joseph Karo, Bet Yosef, Hoshen Mishpat 249 (regarding Karo's view, see the comprehensive discussion in R. Hayyim Palache, Nishmat Kol Hai [Jerusalem, 1988]), vol. 1, no. 54); R. Naftali Zvi Yehudah Berlin, Meshiv Davar (Brooklyn, 1987), Vol. 1, p. 57a; R. Abraham Isaiah Barelitz, Hazon Ish (Bnei Bak, 1959), to Shevi'it 24:3.</ref> In addition, even according to those who accept the basic view that Muslims in Israel are ''[[Ger Toshav|Gerei Toshav]]'' it is possible that this notion may no longer apply. One of the characteristics of a ''[[Ger Toshav]]'' is that they accept Jewish sovereignty,<ref>For a complete review of the laws regarding a ''[[Ger Toshav]]'', see Encyclopedia Talmudit (Jerusalem, 1954), Vol. 6, s.v. ger toshav.</ref> a characteristic clearly absent when one is dealing with a population that refuses to accept Israeli rule. The late Rabbi Meir Kahane often made this point with regard to Arabs in Israel,<ref>See, e.g., his They Must Go (New York, 1981), pp. 267-276, and Al ha-Emunah ve-al ha-Geulah (no place or date), pp. 72-73. </ref> and it has begun to find larger acceptance among other halachists.<ref>See, e.g., R. Yosef Pinhasi, Yefat Mar'eh (Jerusalem, 1987), part 2, no.,1, who discusses recent Islamic literature which advocates the destruction of the State of Israel.</ref> As the intifada continues it is only to be expected that more and more halachic authorities will discount Israeli Muslims from the rank of ''[[Ger Toshav]]''. This might be a step towards some halachic views that non-Jews who refuse to accept Israeli rule are not permitted to remain in the Land.<ref>Such a ruling is found in R. Shlomo Aviner, She'elot u-Teshuvot Intifadah (Bet El, 1990), pp. 9, 76-77. The intifada has also begun to make an impact on rabbinic literature in other respects. See, e.g., the periodical Or Torah (Adar, 5750), p. 378, where it is claimed that the Zohar foretells the uprising.</ref> R. Ben Zion Krieger<ref>Krieger's view is found in Krieger and Uri Dasberg, eds., Benei Yisrael u-Benei Noah (Elkanah, 1988), p. 73.</ref> asserts that Israel is obligated to expel the Arab population. However, this opinion has been met with complete rejection by all important halachic authorities. There is an enormous literature by contemporary scholars concerning the halachic status of Arabs in Israel<ref>The interested reader should consult in particular the Israeli journals, Ha-Torah ve-ha-Medinah, Shanah be-Shanah, and Tehumin, where many important articles can be found.</ref><br />
<br />
==Remnants of a Jewish-Islamic relationship==<br />
<br />
There are some indications that the early Jewish-Islamic relationship was based in some part of a Noahide relationship. It appears that the early Muslims looked to the Jews for approval and authority, "to settle doubts and disputes":<br />
<br />
Yunus 10:94<br />
<font face="Courier New" size="+1"><div dir="rtl" lang="ar"><br />
فَإِن كُنتَ فِي شَكٍّ مِّمَّا أَنزَلْنَا إِلَيْكَ فَاسْأَلِ الَّذِينَ يَقْرَؤُونَ الْكِتَابَ مِن قَبْلِكَ لَقَدْ جَاءكَ الْحَقُّ مِن رَّبِّكَ فَلاَ تَكُونَنَّ مِنَ الْمُمْتَرِينَ<br />
</div></font><br />
:But if you are in doubt as to what We have revealed to you, ask those [the Jews] who read the Scriptures before you [the Muslims]. Certainly the truth has come to you from your Lord, therefore you should not be of the disputers.<br />
<br />
Al-Baqara 2:136<br />
<font face="Courier New" size="+1"><div dir="rtl" lang="ar"><br />
قُولُواْ آمَنَّا بِاللّهِ وَمَآ أُنزِلَ إِلَيْنَا وَمَا أُنزِلَ إِلَى إِبْرَاهِيمَ وَإِسْمَاعِيلَ وَإِسْحَقَ وَيَعْقُوبَ وَالأسْبَاطِ وَمَا أُوتِيَ مُوسَى وَعِيسَى وَمَا أُوتِيَ النَّبِيُّونَ مِن رَّبِّهِمْ لاَ نُفَرِّقُ بَيْنَ أَحَدٍ مِّنْهُمْ وَنَحْنُ لَهُ مُسْلِمُونَ<br />
</div></font><br />
:Say, We believe in God, and in that which has been sent down unto us, and and in that which was sent down unto Abraham and Ishmael, and Isaac and Jacob, and the Tribes; and in that which was delivered unto Moses and Jesus, and in that which was delivered to the Prophets from the Lord. We make no distinction between any of them; and to Him we are resigned.<br />
<br />
Al-Ankaboot 29:46<br />
<font face="Courier New" size="+1"><div dir="rtl" lang="ar"><br />
وَلَا تُجَادِلُوا أَهْلَ الْكِتَابِ إِلَّا بِالَّتِي هِيَ أَحْسَنُ إِلَّا الَّذِينَ ظَلَمُوا مِنْهُمْ وَقُولُوا آمَنَّا بِالَّذِي أُنزِلَ إِلَيْنَا وَأُنزِلَ إِلَيْكُمْ وَإِلَهُنَا وَإِلَهُكُمْ وَاحِدٌ وَنَحْنُ لَهُ مُسْلِمُونَ<br />
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:Dispute not with the People of the Book, but in the mildest way, excepting such as behave injuriously; and say, We believe in that which has been revealed unto us, and in that which has been revealed unto you; our God and your God is One, and to Him we are resigned.<br />
<br />
Sunan Abu Dawud, Book 38 (Kitab al Hudud, ie. Prescribed Punishments), Number 4434: <br />
<br />
:Narrated Abdullah Ibn Umar: A group of Jews came and invited the Apostle of Allah (peace_be_upon_him) to Quff. So he visited them in their school. They said: Abu Qasim, one of our men has committed fornication with a woman; so pronounce judgment upon them. They placed a cushion for the Apostle of Allah (peace_be_upon_him) who sat on it and said: Bring the Torah. It was then brought. He then withdrew the cushion from beneath him and placed the Torah on it saying: I believed in thee and in Him Who revealed thee. He then said: Bring me one who is learned among you. Then a young rabbi<ref>Islamic tradition says the young rabbi was Abdallah ibn Saba. Modern historiographic research identifies this rabbi as Heman ibn Shallum, the 38th Jewish Exilarch (de jure), who was a youth at the time. Heman ibn Shallum was deposed in 642CE in by Caliph 'Umar in favor of Bostanai.</ref> was brought..."<br />
<br />
==Islam as a Noahide Faith?==<br />
<br />
Some have speculated that the [[Mesani]] refer to the Seven Laws of Noah, but this is impossible to prove.<br />
<br />
15.87 And We have bestowed upon thee the Seven Oft-repeated (verses) and the Grand Qur'an.<br />
<br />
17:22 — Prohibition of Idolatry #1<br />
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17:23 — Prohibition of Blasphemy #2<br />
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17:32 — Prohibition of Sexual Immorality #4<br />
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17:33 — Prohibition of Homicide #3<br />
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17:34 — Prohibition of Theft #5<br />
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17:35 — Imperative of Legal System #7<br />
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17:36 — Prohibition of Limb of a Living Creature #6??? (although prohibition of blood specifically mentioned by the 2:173; 5:3)<br />
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39.23 Allah has revealed the most beautiful Message in the form of a Book, consistent with the Oft-repeated (verses).<br />
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71:1 We sent Noah to his People: "Do thou warn thy People before there comes to them a grievous Penalty."<br />
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==Sheich Palazzi's Speech at the Conference on Noahide Council==<br />
<br />
Earlier in the day, several speakers addressed issues surrounding the B'nai Noah movement as part of a conference on the establishment of the B'nai Noah Council.<br />
<br />
Sheich Abdul Hadi Palazzi, a leader of the Italian Muslim Assembly, addressed the assembly, speaking about B'nai Noah in Islam: "Islamic law holds within it the seven laws of Noah and can be taught correctly to the Muslims of the world... I remember reading that a new Sanhedrin was created in Jerusalem [and] my impression was very positive - I thought maybe something new had been created to allow the Jewish people to project moral and legal clarity to counterbalance the lack of it in our world."<br />
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Palazzi added that the project of creating a council of Noahide teachers would hopefully counter the negative educational effect of the Gaza withdrawal, "which taught the opposite to my people - it convinced many that only terrorism works."<br />
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==Bibliography==<br />
* Judaism: A Quarterly Journal of Jewish Life and Thought, 6/22/1993, Author: Shapiro, Marc B.<br />
* Moshe Perlmann, "The Medieval Polemics Between Islam and Judaism," in S.D. Goitein, ed., Religion in a Religious Age (Cambridge, Mass., 1974), pp. 121-122, 126. and<br />
* M. Steinschneider, Polemische und apologetische Literatur in arabischer Sprache, zwischen Muslimen, Christen und Juden (Leipzig, 1877).<br />
* Ronald Kiener, "The Image of Islam in the Zohar," Mehkerei Yerushalayim be-Mahshevet Yisrael 9 (1989): 43-65 (English section)<br />
* Abraham Schreiber, "Yahas Hachmei Yisrael le-Istam," in Itamar Warhaftig, ed., Minhah le-Ish (Jerusalem, 1991), pp. 276-292.<br />
* Regarding Karaite attitudes, see Haggai Ben-shammai, "The Attitude of Some Early Karaites Towards Islam," in Isadore Twersky, ed., Studies in Medieval Jewish History and Literature (Cambridge, Mass., 1984), Vol. 2, pp. 1-40.<br />
* Regarding Islamic influence on Jewish practice, Naphtali Wieder, Hashpa'ot Islamiyyot al ha-Pulhan ha-Yehudi (Oxford, 1947).<br />
<br />
==See Also==<br />
* [[Noahide Law in the Qur'an]]<br />
* [[Jewish Sources of the Qur'an]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references /></div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=Imperative_of_Legal_System&diff=3989Imperative of Legal System2007-03-16T14:38:56Z<p>HaNoahide: /* Legal System in Noahide Law */</p>
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<div>[[Image:LegalSystemsOfTheWorldMap.png|thumb|right|300px|World distribution of major legal traditions]]<br />
The Imperative of Legal System for Noahides includes the requirement to set up courts of Justice, and to refrain from any action that would lead to an unjust court decision. Just what are the implications of the Noahide imperative on Justice (Dinim) is the subject of dispute among major authors. On the one hand, authorities like [[Maimonides]] says: "They are obligated to set up judges and magistrates in every major city to judge according to the above six laws, to warn the nation [regarding their observance]"<ref>Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings 9:14</ref> which seems to imply that the courts need only uphold the first six laws. Other authorities like [[Nachmanides]] disagree, and envision an entire legal system. Still other authorities give the national courts complete freedom to legislate anything as long as it doesn't contradict the seven laws, see Rabbi Yaakov Anatoli below.<br />
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The consensus of halacha today is not like [[Maimonides]], but that the non-Jews are free to set up their own system of laws as long as they don't disagree with the [[Seven Laws|seven basic laws]]. The consensus of halacha today is that the existing national court systems are at least in part Noahide courts; that failing to uphold all seven noahide laws does not invalidate the national court as a Noahide court; that Noahides can fulfill their requirement of the [[Imperative of Legal System]] through these courts. The major disagreement among ''poskim'' today is if there is any value to the judgments of these national courts beyond their utilitarian value.<br />
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Noahide Law is a legal system that encompasses, and is the root of all proper religion and society. Noahide Law does not recognize a distinction between [[religion and state]] in terms of law, but contains them both. Most national courts have broken, to various degrees, with any sense of divine sanction for Law, and any attempt to approximate of Divine Law. This is slowly being replaced with a utilitarian, popular law, where legality is defined by majority vote of the population. <br />
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==Legal System in Jewish Law (for Noahides)==<br />
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===Rabbi Yaakov Anatoli (1194-1256)===<br />
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When the Noahites were enjoined concerning Justice, they were put under obligation to create legal arrangements .... It is incumbent on the judges to draw up rules of equity that shall be appropriate for that particular country, as exemplified by the manner in which this matter is handled currently by the nations, severally. Likewise, it is incumbent upon merchants and upon the members of the trades to establish regulations for themselves... and whatever emerges as the law in this manner is law, as much as that which is written in the Bible. Furthermore, anyone violating this law violates Scripture, because Scripture commands the individual to accept the decisions of the contemporary jurists. The dictum, "The law of the land is the Law," relates to this concept.<ref>Quoted by Reuben Margolioth, Margolioth Hayarn. Jerusalem: Mosad Harav Kook, 1958, volume 11, page 20. (Sanhedrin 56b, section 9.)</ref><br />
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===Nahmanides===<br />
<br />
Nahmanides begins his statement of view by quoting a comment by Maimonides concerning the destruction of the city of Shechern by Simon and Levi in retaliation for the rape of their sister at the hands of the city's favorite son, in the 34th chapter of Genesis:<br />
<br />
:The Master [Maimonides] explains in his volume on judges [Code, "Laws for Kings" 9:14], that since Noahites are charged with upholding justice - meaning that they must appoint judges who are to rule on their [remaining] six laws in each and every town - and, furthermore, since a Noahite who violates any one of his laws is to be executed by the sword, therefore all citizens of Shechern were fit to die, because Shechern [the son] stole and they all saw and knew it but they did not bring him to justice. <br />
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:I do not think this explanation is correct. For if so, then their father, Jacob, should have been under obligation to assume a leading role in the executions; and if he was afraid why did he wax angry at his sons to the extent that long after he cursed their fury, he punished them, and he scattered them. Had they not done a good thing, having had faith in the Lord and He granted them success?<br />
<br />
:Anyway, to my mind, this justice which is enumerated among the Seven Laws of Noah is not limited to the establishment of courts. Rather, it charges the Noahites with laws on stealing, overcharging, withholding salaries, the liability of watchmen, rape, seduction, damages, bodily injury, loans, business transactions, and the like, similar to the laws with which the Israelites are charged. Thus, they place themselves under threat of execution by stealing, or cheating, or raping, or seducing another's daughter, or burning down another's silo, or injuring him, and the like. It is this same law that also obligates them to appoint judges in each town, like the Israelites. However, if they neglect to do this they are not to be executed, because this derives from a positive imperative, and the rule of "Their prohibition [when violated, constitutes grounds for] their execution," applies only for the negative imperatives...<ref>Nahmanides, Pirush al HaTorah (Commentary on the Pentateuch). Edited and annotated by Charles B. Chavel. Jerusalem: Mosad Harav Kook, 1959, volume 1, page 191.</ref><br />
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===Rabbi Moses Isserles (circa 1500)===<br />
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Noahide justice does not leave it for each judge or government to develop original principles of equity; rather, a set of such principles are part and parcel of Noahism, under Justice. This idea is further developed, and extended, by Moses Isserles (circa 1500) who reads this very issue into a talmudic argument:<br />
<br />
:...Rabbi Johanan, [in Sanhedrin 56b,] maintains that Noahites are compelled, under the requirements of justice, merely to uphold the national customs, and to judge between man and man fairly. But Noahites are not compelled to be in consonance with Israel's law, bequeathed by the hands of Moses at Sinai, because Noahic law is purely a law of social accord ... the statutes of Israel are one thing and the statutes of Noah are another.<br />
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:However, Rabbi Isaac has a different approach. He maintains [ibid.] that Noahic Justice involves the very law which Jews were bequeathed at Sinai ... and it seems to me that the opinion of Rabbi Isaac prevails, because...<ref>Moses Isserles, Sheilot U'Teshuvot Rarno, Sudylkow; Isaac Madpis, printer, 1835, page 7, Responsum 10.</ref><br />
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===Rabbi Aaron Lictenstein===<br />
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After discussing the [[Seven Laws as Categories]], Rabbi Aaron Lichtenstein attempts define which of the 613 laws, based on Maimonides' Book of Divine Commandments, would fall under the Noahide Imperative of Legal System and therefore apply to Noahides, he writes:<ref>[[Aaron Lichtenstein|Lichtenstein, Aaron]]. "The Seven Laws of Noah". New York: The Rabbi Jacob Joseph School Press and Z. Berman Books, 2d ed. 1986</ref><br />
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Just what are the implications of the Noahide imperative on Justice (Dinim) is the subject of dispute among major authors. All agree however that the following two aspects are implied: (a) that courts shall be established and (b) that any act which contributes to an unjust court decision shall be prohibited. That these two aspects are involved derives from the Talmudic remark to the effect that justice has reference to both (a) required acts of commission and (b) prohibited acts.<ref>Sanhedrin 59a: "Qum v'ase v'shev v'al t'ase." - See Rashi's marginal comment, ad locum.</ref><br />
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The following imperatives from among the Mosaic 613 are implicit in these two aspects of the Noahic law on justice:<br />
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:1. "...to appoint judges and officers in each and every community." Positive 176.<ref>Tosefta, Avoda Zara, chapter 9: "Just as Israelites must establish a court in each city and town, so the Noahites must establish a court in each city and town. "</ref><br />
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:2. "...to treat the litigants equally before the law." Positive 177.<br />
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:3. "...to inquire diligently into the testimony of a witness." Positive 179.<br />
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:4. "...against the wanton miscarriage of justice by the court." Negative 273.<br />
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:5. "...against the judge accepting a bribe or gift from a litigant." Negative 274.<br />
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:6. "...against the judge showing marks of honor to but one litigant." Negative 275.<br />
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:7. "...against the judge acting in fear of a litigant's threats." Negative 276. <br />
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Some leniency is extended to the Noahide judge in this connection according to Nahmanides, Pirush al HaTorah (Commentary on the Pentateuch), on Genesis 34:13, who quotes the Jerusalemite Talmud as saying: "Under Israelite law, you may not decline to serve as a judge as long as you are safe from repercussions, but you may decline when you are not safe from repercussions. However, under Noahic law you may decline in any event." Nonetheless, Negative 276 is listed here as having Noahide import because the talmudic quote seems to refer only to the initial refusal to hear a case due to fear of threats, whereas Negative 276 is also addressed at a judge who is already presiding, and who is tempted to render an unjust decision in face of personal danger. The latter surely constitutes a miscarriage of justice. Thus, it seems probable that when Nahmanicles, in reference to Negative 276, writes, - 'Fear no man (in judgment]' is an added feature of Mosaic [not Noahide] law" (ibid.) he means to give a Noahite more latitude in refusing to hand down a decision, but probably he does not mean to sanction an unjust decision.<br />
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Possibly, this extra latitude for the Noahite judge finds expression in a situation such as described in the following halakha: "When two litigants - a mild one and a vicious one - approach you with their dispute you may say to them 'I refuse to judge your case,' as long as you have not as yet heard their arguments or, even having heard their arguments, as long as you do not know who is the more likely to win, lest the vicious litigant lose and try to kill you. But once you have heard their arguments and know who is the more likely to win, you may not say 'I refuse to judge your case,' because of the dictum, 'Fear no man'…" (Imperative 415, Sefer HaHinnuch). Nahmanides may mean to sanction the withdrawal of a Noahite judge even after he knows which litigant is likely to emerge victorious. See Joseph Babad, Minhat Hinnuch. New York: Saphrograph, 1950, Part 111, page 76 (Imperative 415): "I think Noahites, too, are implicated in this 'Do not fear' according to Nahmanides…"<br />
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Also see Rashi, Sanhedrin 56b last line: "The fear of Me shall be upon you,'implies but not the fear of men, as in Deuteronomy 5,'Fear no man, for judgment is of the Lord,' that is, justice [of the Seven Laws]."<br />
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:8. "...against the judge, out of compassion, favoring a poor litigant." Negative 277.<br />
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:9. "...against the judge discriminating against the litigant because he is a sinner." Negative 278.<br />
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:10. "...against the judge, out of softness, putting aside the penalty of a mauler or killer." Negative 279.<br />
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:11. "...against the judge discriminating against a stranger or an orphan." Negative 280. <br />
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The idea here is to require equal treatment for those who are weak or meek for lack of relatives and friends. However, "stranger" in the Israelite statute, may refer strictly to "proselyte," in which case only "orphan" would have significance for the Noahide law here.<br />
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:12. "...against the judge hearing one litigant in the absence of the other." Negative 281.<br />
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:13. "...against appointing a judge who lacks knowledge of the Law." Negative 284. <br />
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Cf. Joseph Babad, Minhat Hinnuch. New York: Saphrograph, 1950, Part III, page 76 (Imperative 414): "Perhaps the Noahites too are included in this prohibition, and must appoint only a man who is erudite in Torah with regard to the laws that pertain to the Noahites." Also see remark of Aaron HaLevi, there, who considers Negative 284 a natural component of the pursuit of justice when he writes: ". . . an untutored judge will acquit the guilty and condemn the innocent. The rationale behind this command should be clear to all." <br />
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:14. "...against the court killing an innocent man." Negative 289.<br />
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:15. "...against incrimination by circumstantial evidence." Negative 290. <br />
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:16. "...against punishing for a crime committed under duress." Negative 294. <br />
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Cf. Maimonides, Code, "Laws on Kings" 10:2, "A Noahite who is forced - because his life is in danger - to transgress any of his laws is permitted to transgress." At this point it should be noted that the threats in Negative 276 (against a judge acting in fear of a litigant's threats,) are not such threats that constitute a clear and present danger to the life of the judge, or he would probably be permitted to misjudge in order to save his own life.<br />
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:17. "...that the court is to administer the death penalty by the sword [i.e., decapitation]." Positive 226. <br />
::See [[Capital Punishment in Noahide law]]<br />
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:18. "...against anyone taking the law into his own hands to kill the perpetrator of a capital crime." Negative 292. <br />
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Naftali Zvi Judah Berlin, Haarnek Shaela (Commentary on Sheiltoth of Ahai Gaon). Jerusalem: Mosad Harav Kook, 1961, volume 1, page 16 (section 2:3). The discussion there centers on how justice may have application for the Noahide lay citizen - for in the main justice seems directed at the presiding jurists. N.Z.J. Berlin concludes that each Noahite "is compelled to desist from enforcement of the remaining six laws except via the court. That is, a witness to a murder may not execute the murderer, but must wait for the trial…" However, another writer disagrees: Babad, in Minhat Hinnuch, Part 111, page 72 (Imperative 409) writes: "The Noahites are not restricted in this way [Negative 2921 but may judge singly and at once." Babad repeats this remark on page 73, ibid.<br />
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:19. "...to testify in court." Positive 178. <br />
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Thus, another example of how each citizen is expected to participate in the quest for justice is when he is called as a material witness. That Noahites are so implicated can be derived from Sanhedrin 57b, as follows: "A Noahite can be condemned on the testimony of a man, but not on a woman's ... Rav Hamnuna raised the following question here, 'You say that a woman is not obligated to pursue Justice? Notice that because a woman is ineligible to testify, Rav Hamnuna concluded that she is under no obligation with regard to Justice. Apparently, when a Noahite testifies in court he is fulfilling one of his obligations under justice.<br />
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:20. "...against testifying falsely." Negative 285. <br />
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If, as in Positive 178 above, a Noahite is under obligation to enlighten the court with his testimony, one may safely conclude that the Noahite has not met this obligation when his testimony leaves the truth unsaid. Cf. Philip Biberfeld, Das Noachidische Urrecht. Frankfurt, 1937, page 64.<br />
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Thus, twenty from among the Mosaic 613 have application for the Noahite under Justice. According to Maimonides – and most writers probably would side with him - Justice purports nothing more than the spirit of these twenty items. However, Nahmanides (Ramban) objects. He views justice as signifying much more. <br />
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Nahmanides ascribes to justice a compilation of statutes which directs the judge in making the appropriate decision in every case of "stealing ... rape ... bodily injury ... business transactions, and the like." In other words, the Noahic category of justice alludes to an actual code of law.<br />
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Most of the statutes to which Nahmanides refers are designated Positive 236 through Positive 246. Would Nahmanides, then, have us add Positive 236 - Positive 246 (and similar statutes) to the twenty listed above? No, for the following reason: When Nahmanides writes "similar to the laws with which the Israelite are charged," he does not mean that the Noahide laws here are the same as the corresponding Israelite laws. He cannot mean this because the talmudic sources specifically differentiate between Noahic and Mosaic law in the very cases Nahmanides enumerates.<ref> For example, for the seduction of a virgin biblical law exacts a punitive fine of fifty shekalim (Exodus 22:15), but according to Sanhedrin 56b there are no punitive fines (dine qenasot) in Noahic legislation. Another example: on the question of whether the conclusion of a business transaction comes at the time of payment (kesef) or at the time of delivery (meshikha), the Talmud designates one for Jews and the other one ;or non-Jews even before it is clear which applies to whom (Bechorot 13s). Also, see Note 56 above, for an example of how Nahmanides himself differentiates between Noahide and biblical procedure.</ref> What Nahmanides must mean is that just as the Israelite code has a definite ruling for each civil dispute, "similarly" the Noahide tradition has a definite – but not necessarily an identical - ruling. That is to say, Noahide justice does not leave it for each judge or government to develop original principles of equity; rather, a set of such principles are part and parcel of Noahism, under Justice. This idea is further developed, and extended, by Moses Isserles (circa 1500) who reads this very issue into a talmudic argument.<br />
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Here again caution should be exercised not to misread Isserles to mean that all Noahic and Sinaitic laws are identical, and Isserles himself goes on to make mention of some aspects wherein the two systems differ. Still Isserles, more so than is apparent from the words of Nahmanides, sees the two systems as having a great deal in common. For according to Isserles, the civil laws of the two systems differ only where the Talmudic sources explicitly note the dissimilarity, "but otherwise one should not presume to exclude the Noahite from Mosaic principles."<ref>Moses Isserles, Sheilot U'Teshuvot Rarno, Sudylkow; Isaac Madpis, printer, 1835, page 7, Responsum 10.</ref><br />
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That Justice should be thought of as referring to a thorough going system containing points of law, as Nahmanides and Isserles see it, is denied by at least one early author. Jacob Anatoli (1194-1256) expresses the view, in his Hamelamed, that the Noahide tradition does not feature a comprehensive code of standard regulations under Justice. Nonetheless, Anatoli could agree to the inclusion of the twenty imperatives which are listed above as features of Noahide Justice. For these twenty are but manifestations of those two aspects by which the talmudic sources define Justice, (a) that courts shall be established and (b) that any act which contributes to an unjust decision be prohibited.<br />
<br />
===Chaim Clorfene and Yakov Rogalsky===<br />
<br />
According to Chaim Clorfene and Yakov Rogalsky in the "Path of the Righteous Gentile"<ref>* Clorfene, Chaim and Yaakov Rogalsky ''[http://moshiach.com/action/morality/introduction.php The Path of the Righteous Gentile: An Introduction to the Seven Laws of the Children of Noah]''. New York: Phillip Feldheim, 1987</ref> the Children of Noah are commanded to establish courts of law that will carry out justice and maintain human righteousness and morality in accord with the Seven Universal Laws.<ref>Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings, chapter 9, law 14</ref> A court system that perverts justice by handing down rulings in conflict with the Seven Universal Laws is an instrument for driving God's blessings out of the world. Anyone who fails to establish a court system, that is, who lives in a community or city in which there are no courts, and who does nothing to correct the situation, is punishable by death. One who establishes or maintains courts of law that operate contrary to the Seven Universal Laws is similarly liable.<br />
<br />
In the Book of Genesis (34:25), we learn that two of Jacob's sons, Simeon and Levi, slew every male in the city of Shechem. The prince of the community, Shechem, son of Hamor, had raped their sister, Dinah, and the city failed to execute justice by bringing him to a court of law. The city was therefore guilty of transgressing this seventh of the Seven Universal Laws, and every citizen was liable for punishment.<br />
<br />
2. The commandment to establish courts of law, though it might appear to be a positive commandment calling for affirmative action, is considered a prohibition. In effect, the commandment to establish courts of law is a prohibition against failing to establish courts of law, because failure to establish appropriate courts inhibits the performance of justice throughout the nations.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 59a, Rashi</ref><br />
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3. The only punishment meted out by the Noahide courts of law in criminal cases is the death penalty.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 56b, Rashi</ref><br />
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4. One accused of a transgression of the Seven Universal Laws and brought to trial in a Noahide court may be convicted only if he is found to be mentally competent.<ref>Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings, chapter 10, law 2</ref><br />
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5. Every individual must accept a legal decision he has received. It is forbidden for an individual to render a judgment himself (vigilante justice) without going to a court of law.<ref>Encyclopedia Talmudica, volume 3, page 355</ref><br />
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6. In civil matters, that is, cases between individual parties, later authorities question whether the Noahide is commanded to follow the same principles as Jewish law and Jewish courts, or whether he is to follow rulings established by his own Noahide courts and laws.<br />
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Although the Noahide courts are responsibile for only the Seven Universal Laws, not the 613 laws of the Torah, there is an opinion that each decision of the Noahide courts must follow its counterpart in Jewish Law. The accepted opinion, however, is that Noahide judges and courts of law are to render legal decisions according to their own laws and principles of law.<br />
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7. Arbitration and mediation or any other means of finding an amicable settlement or compromise, thereby avoiding a court trial, is desirable, and, more than that, it is a commandment to seek compromise.<br />
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8. Circumstantial evidence is admissible in the Noahide courts of law.<br />
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9. The Children of Noah are responsible for knowledge of the Seven Universal Laws, and therefore one does not have to be warned that he is committing a transgression in order to be accused in a court of law.<ref>Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings, chapter 9, law 14</ref><br />
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10. It is forbidden for a court to have compassion on a murderer, saying that since one person has already been killed, what purpose could there be in killing another? And the court may not delay the execution because of compassion.<ref>Mishneh Torah, Laws of Sanhedrin, chapter 20, law 4</ref><br />
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11. Similarly, in financial litigation, the court may not have mercy on a poor person, taking the attitude that a rich plaintiff has an obligation to support the poor, therefore finding for the poor defendant so that he will be supported with an honorable livelihood.<br />
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12. It is similarly forbidden to pay prejudicial respect to a great person. If two litigants appear in court, one a great wise man and the other a simple person, the judge may not ask about the welfare of the great one nor express pleasure at being in his presence in any way, nor give him honor in any way. Otherwise, the arguments of the simple person would be stifled. He would think, "What's the use anyway?" The judge must not favor either party until judgment is finished. And the sages warn that a judge must not think that since the litigant is so great a person, it is unseemly to embarrass him or see him in his embarrassment.<br />
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13. If two litigants appear in court, and one is a righteous person while the other is a wicked person, the judge should not presume that the wicked person will not tell the truth, nor presume that he will not change his ways, and therefore the judgment should go against him.<ref>Ibid., chapter 20, law 5</ref><br />
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14. One should not judge unrighteously, acquitting the guilty and condemning the innocent. And a judge who delays the judgment, lengthening the time of the testimony or cross-examination, in order to cause either of the litigants to suffer, falls under the ruling of judging unrighteously.<ref>Ibid., chapter 20, law 6</ref><br />
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15. One who judges haughtily, without fearing his awesome responsibility and without due deliberation, and then comes to a decision quickly before he has taken the time to carefully consider the case, is considered stupid, wicked, and coarsely egotistical.<ref>Ibid., chapter 20, law 7</ref><br />
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16. The courts should not establish a standard judgment by which numerous cases may be judged according to a precedent system, but should consider each case individually on its own unique merits.<ref>Ibid., chapter 20, law 8</ref> (Note: Precedent in legal cases may be followed as guidelines, however.)<br />
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17. A case concerning a large sum of money and a case concerning a small amount of money should be given equal and individual consideration.<ref>Ibid., chapter 20, law 10</ref><br />
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18. It is a positive commandment to deliver a righteous judgment, treating the two claimants equally in every respect. The judge may not permit one to explain his case at great length while telling the other to keep his words brief. Nor should the judge be pleasant and smile at one while being short and gruff to the other.<ref>Ibid., chapter 21, law 1</ref><br />
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19. A judge is forbidden to take a bribe. Bribery will certainly corrupt any judgment. A judge who takes a bribe is obligated to return the bribe if the giver demands it.<ref>Ibid., chapter 23, law 1</ref><br />
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20. It is also forbidden to offer a bribe to a judge.<ref>Ibid., chapter 23, law 2</ref> The category of bribery is not limited to money, but includes any type of gift or favor.<ref>Ibid., chapter 23, law 3</ref><br />
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21. Any judge who sits in judgment and attempts to magnify his importance, even in order to increase the wages of his bailiff or the court clerk, is in the category of one who leans after the wrong things. Once a judge was entering a boat to cross a river. A man who had a case in litigation before the judge was on the boat and stretched out his hand to help the judge aboard. The judge told him, "Behold, I am disqualified to judge your case."<br />
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Note: The goal of justice is to function as impartially and righteously as possible, to the ultimate degree. The following section delineates some of the details of the standards of the Jewish Bet Din, the ecclesiastical court. The Noahide courts are not obligated to follow these rules, but must be acquainted with them as points of reference.<br />
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22. Two litigants appear before a judge. One is dressed very elegantly with expensive clothing and the other is wearing the clothes of a pauper. The judge should tell the elegantly dressed one, "You should clothe the other one until he is dressed as elegantly as you are, or you should clothe yourself to appear as he does, and then you can enter judgment with him."<ref>Ibid., chapter 21, law 2</ref><br />
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23. The litigants should both sit or stand; it is improper for one to stand and the other to sit. If the judge wishes to seat them both, he may do so. If they sit, they should sit side by side, neither one higher than the other, and they may so sit during the entire time that the judge is listening to the case. But when the judge's decision is being announced, then both litigants should be standing. The "decision" is the judge's announcement finding for the defendant and against the plaintiff or for the plaintiff and against the defendant. Witnesses for either side should always stand during testimony.<ref>Ibid., chapter 21, law 3</ref><br />
<br />
24. If there are many cases before the judge, the case of an orphan should precede the case of a widow, and the case of a widow should precede the case of a Torah scholar, and the case of a scholar should precede the case of an unlearned man, and the case of a woman should precede the case of a man, for a woman's embarrassment is greater.<ref>Ibid., chapter 21, law 6</ref><br />
<br />
25. It is forbidden for the judge to hear the plea of one of the litigants unless the other one is also present. To listen to even one word of the case itself is forbidden. And we warn the litigant that he should not allow his words to be heard before the other litigant arrives.<ref>Ibid., chapter 21, law 7</ref><br />
<br />
26. The judge may not hear testimony through an interpreter or a translator, as the truth is reached only by hearing the words of the litigants themselves. He must understand the language of the litigants and hear their testimony and proofs. If the judge does not speak their language fluently, he may use an interpreter to reply to the litigants to inform them of the judgment and the reason he found for this one and against that one.<ref>Ibid., chapter 21, law 8</ref><br />
<br />
27. The judge must hear the arguments of the litigants, then review the arguments in their presence to be sure that he understands them clearly. Then he righteously decides the case in his heart, and afterward he reaches the final decision.<ref>Ibid., chapter 21, law 9</ref><br />
<br />
28. The judge should not defend the words of the litigant, but he should sit silently as each litigant says what he feels he must. And the judge should not instruct either of the litigants in his presentation of any argument.<ref>Ibid., chapter 21, law 10</ref><br />
<br />
29. If the judge sees a favorable point in the case of either of the litigants and the litigant does not know how to bring forth the point, or gets angry and confused to the point of being unable to state his case clearly, the judge may come to his aid slightly and put him on the right track to state the beginning of his case. But the judge must be careful of how he does this so as to avoid instructing the litigant in how to present a meritorious case, for if the judge did this, he would be perverting justice.<ref>Ibid., chapter 21, law 11</ref><br />
<br />
30. Prior to the judge's hearing the case, if he feels personally threatened by either of the litigants, he may refuse to sit in judgment. But if he has already heard their words and knows which way the judgment is leaning, it is not proper for the judge to refuse to pass judgment out of fear of one of the litigants.<ref>Ibid., chapter 22, law 1</ref><br />
<br />
31. If there is more than one judge in a case, it is forbidden for any of them to say after the trial, "I judged in your merit, but my colleagues found against you and inasmuch as they were the majority, what could I do?”<ref>Ibid., chapter 22, law 7</ref><br />
<br />
32. A judge is forbidden to sit in judgment with a colleague whom he knows to be a thief or a wicked person. He must not sit in judgment with another until he knows with whom he is sitting. And no one should sign a contract until he knows with whom he is signing.<ref>Ibid., chapter 22, law 10</ref><br />
<br />
33. A judge is forbidden to judge someone he loves, even though it is less than a great abiding love. Nor can he judge one he hates, even though the person is not his enemy. Ideally, the litigants should be equal in the eyes and heart of the judge. If he recognizes neither them nor their deeds, he can render the most honest judgment possible.<ref>Ibid., chapter 23, law 6</ref><br />
<br />
34. Men of learning who are contemptuous of each other should not judge a case together. The judgment is likely to be distorted, as the contempt would incline one to contradict the opinions of the other.<ref>Ibid., chapter 23, law 7</ref><br />
<br />
35. A judge should imagine himself with a sword resting on his neck and the Pit of Hell open below him. And he should know Who is the Judge and in front of Whom he judges, and Who will seek retribution from him if he strays from the truth.<ref>Ibid., chapter 23, law 8</ref><br />
<br />
36. If a judge feels deeply in his heart that one of the litigants is in the right, and there is no proof for it, or if the judge feels that there is deception and trickery afoot by one of the litigants or with one of the witnesses, and there is no proof for it, or if he feels he cannot rely on the words of the witnesses even if he is not able to disqualify them, or if another similar situation arises, then this judge must disqualify himself from the case and be replaced by one who can judge with a whole heart in the matter. But if the judge knows for sure that one of the witnesses is lying, he should not remove himself from the case, but judge it according to his understanding of the truth. And all these things are matters of the heart.<ref>Ibid., chapter 24, law I</ref><br />
<br />
37. If a judge errs in his decision in a financial matter, he should retract his decision, restore everything to its original status, and retry the case. If it is not possible to retract and restore, for instance, one of the litigants went to a foreign land and took the money awarded him, or the like, then the judge is held harmless from making restitution of the money. It is clear that he had no intention of causing damage.<ref>Ibid., chapter 6, law 1</ref><br />
<br />
38. Every judge should possess the following seven attributes:<br />
* Wisdom<br />
* Humility<br />
* Fear of Heaven<br />
* Fear of sin<br />
* Contempt for money<br />
* Love of truth<br />
* Beloved by his fellow man<br />
* A good reputation<ref>Ibid., chapter 2, law 7</ref><br />
<br />
39. When is one beloved by his fellow man? When he views things in a favorable light and is humble, and he speaks and conducts business in a pleasant manner. He should be meticulous in fulfilling the commandments of God, and he should have conquered his evil inclination to the point that he is without blemish. His name should serve as an outstanding model for the generation. He should be courageous in order to exact a righteous judgment against strong‑willed wrongdoers. Money should not be precious to him so that he will not chase after it, for it is taught that if one desires to be rich, poverty will come upon him. He should not need to be exhorted to strive after truth, but should pursue truth from his own desire for it. He must love truth and despise whatever opposes truth. And he must flee from all forms of transgression.<br />
<br />
40. If a judge who possesses all these noble attributes cannot be found, then one should strive to find one who meets as many of these requirements as possible.<br />
<br />
PART TWO: Laws concerning witnesses<br />
<br />
1. A person may be convicted in a Noahide court by the testimony of a single witness, but only if the witness is known to be righteous.<ref>Mishneh Torah, Laws of Witnesses, chapter 11, law 2</ref> If the character of the witness is not known, it takes two witnesses to be able to convict the accused. It is permissible for the witnesses as well as the judge to be relatives of the accused.<ref>Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings, chapter 9, law 14</ref><br />
<br />
2. A person may testify against himself in a court of law,<ref>Sefer HaHinnukh, Commandment 26</ref> but since he is the accused, his character is definitely in question, and a second witness is necessary to be able to convict him.<br />
<br />
3. The witnesses must be subjected to a thorough and systematic scrutiny to reveal any inconsistencies or other flaws in their testimony.<ref>Mishneh Torah, Laws of Witnesses, chapter 1, law 4</ref><br />
<br />
4. One is commanded to give truthful testimony in a court of law even if he knows the testimony will damage a friend or exonerate an enemy. And, this refers to civil litigation or criminal matters. In a criminal case, he is commanded to come forth and give testimony even if the court does not request him to do so.<ref>Ibid., chapter 1, law 1</ref><br />
<br />
5. There are ten classifications that are disqualified as witnesses or as judges in a court of law:<br />
<br />
* Women<br />
* Slaves<br />
* Small children<br />
* Fools and the insane<br />
* The deaf and the mute<br />
* The blind, even if they recognize voices<br />
* Known transgressors<br />
* People who care not how they behave in public<br />
* Husbands of women involved in the trial<br />
* People who would benefit from a decision in the case<ref>Ibid., chapter 9, law 1</ref><br />
<br />
6. A wicked person is disqualified as a witness. This means that the testimony of anyone who is known to transgress the Seven Universal Laws is inadmissible.<ref>Ibid., chapter 10, laws 1 and 2</ref><br />
<br />
7. The courts should not admit the testimony of anyone unless it is ascertained that this person is involved in keeping the Seven Universal Laws and does acts of kindness and conducts himself in a straight way and is honest and upright.<ref>Ibid., chapter 11, law 2</ref><br />
<br />
8. The judge who admits testimony from a witness before it is ascertained whether the witness is qualified to testify is held responsible. This judge is considered as one who perverts justice.<ref>Ibid., chapter 11, law 4</ref><br />
<br />
9. Whoever disgraces himself publicly is disqualified as a witness. These are people who walk and eat in a coarse, impolite fashion in public, or who go naked in public, or who are involved in any disgusting work or activity, or anyone who feels no self‑embarrassment. All these people are considered on the level of dogs, and one cannot trust them to be stringent against giving false testimony.<ref>Ibid., chapter 11, law 5</ref><br />
<br />
10. Even if a multitude of wise, God‑fearing people tell someone that they saw such‑and‑such a person commit such-and‑such a crime, and even though he believes it in his heart to be true, he is forbidden to testify in court unless he saw the incident with his own eyes. Anyone who testifies on the hearsay of others is considered a false witness, which is tantamount to conspiring against another, and this is a grave transgression.<ref>Ibid., chapter 17, law 1</ref><br />
<br />
(Note: One who gives false testimony which convicts a person and causes him to be executed receives the death penalty.)<br />
<br />
===Rabbi Yoel Schwartz (Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah)===<br />
[[Image:BDBN.gif|right]]<br />
It is important to form courts of justice so that persons can be called upon to uphold the mitzvot, the religious laws and to be able to judge between people. Sages were divided as to whether the Noahides should be judged according to the Torah concerning financial matters or whether they should be judged according to common sense. It is worthwhile that such courts of justice should give sentences according to the same law for men and for women. The judges should be men since a woman should strive not to be involved in public matters. Every person should go to a court for justice and not try to mete out justice himself. Courts of justice are allowed to enforce regulations for the benefit of the society and to improve ethics and morality. It is the obligation of the Noahide to execute justice to the fullest degree and not to be merciful to criminals. People have the obligation to obey the law and see that the legislative and judicial and personnel and systems obey the law.<ref>[http://www.jewishanswers.org/ask-the-rabbi-1806/seven-noahide-laws/ Noahide Commandments by Rabbi Yoel Schwartz, Translated by Yitzhak A. Oked Sechter, Reviewed and corrected by Yechiel Sitzman in consultation with Rabbi Yoel Schwartz]</ref><br />
<br />
==Legal System in Noahide Law==<br />
<br />
[[Image:LegalSystemsOfTheWorldMap.png|thumb|right|300px|World distribution of major legal traditions]]<br />
The three major '''legal systems of the world''' today consist of [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]], [[common law]] and [[religious law]]. However, each country (see [[State (law)]]) often develops variations on each system or incorporates many other features into the system. Despite the usefulness of different classifications, every legal system has its own individual identity. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Civil law===<br />
<br />
Civil law is the most widespread system of law in the world. <br />
It is also known as '''European Continental law'''. The central source of law that is recognised as authoritative are codifications in a constitution or statute passed by government, to amend a code. Civil law systems mainly derive from the [[Roman Empire]], and more particularly, the ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'' issued by the Emperor Justinian ca. 529AD. This was an extensive reform of the law in the Eastern Empire, bringing it together into codified documents. Civil law today, in theory, is interpreted rather than developed or made by judges. Only legislative enactments (rather than judicial precedents) are considered legally binding. However, in reality courts do pay attention to previous decisions, especially from higher courts. <br />
<br />
Scholars of [[comparative law]] and economists promoting the [[legal origins theory]] usually subdivide civil law into three distinct groups:<br />
*[[French law|French civil law]]: in [[France]], the [[Benelux]] countries, [[Italy]], [[Spain]] and former colonies of those countries;<br />
*[[Law of Germany#Civil law|German civil law]]: in [[Germany]], [[Austria]],Croatia [[Switzerland]], [[Greece]], [[Portugal]], [[Turkey]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]] and the [[Republic of China]];<br />
*[[Scandinavian law|Scandinavian civil law]]: in [[Denmark]], [[Norway]] and [[Sweden]]. [[Finland]] and [[Iceland]] inherited the system from their neighbors.<br />
<br />
A comprehensive list of countries that base their legal system on a [[Codification|codified]] civil law follows:<br />
{| width="100%" class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! width="130px" |Country <br />
! Description <br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Albania|Albania]]<br />
|The Civil Code of the Republic of Albania, 1991 really[http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UNTC/UNPAN014893.pdf]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Angola|Angola]]<br />
|Based on [[Portugal|Portuguese]] civil law<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Argentina|Argentina]]<br />
|The [[Spain|Spanish]] legal tradition had a great influence on the [[Civil Code]] of [[Argentina]], basically a work of the [[Argentinean]] [[jurist]] [[Dalmacio Ve'lez Sa'rsfield]], who dedicated five years of his life on this task. The Civil Code came into effect on January 1, 1871. Beyond the influence of the Spanish legal tradition, the Argentinian Civil Code was also inspired by the Draft of the [[Brazilian]] Civil Code, the [[wikt:Draft|Draft]] of the Spanish Civil Code of 1851, the [[Napoleonic code]] and the [[Chilean]] Civil Code. The sources of this Civil Code also include various theoretical legal works, mainly of the great [[France|French]] jurists of the 19<sup>th</sup> century. It was the first Civil Law that consciously adopted as its cornerstone the distinction between i. rights from obligations and ii. real property rights, thus distancing itself from the French model.<br />
<br />
The Argentinian Civil Code was also in effect in [[Paraguay]], as per a [[Paraguayan]] law of 1880, until the new Civil Code went in force in 1987.<br />
<br />
During the second half of the 20th century, the [[German law|German]] legal theory became increasingly influential in Argentina.<br />
|-<br />
|[[Laws of Andorra|Andorra]]<br />
|Courts apply the customary laws of Andorra, supplemented with Roman law and customary Catalan law.<ref>http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3164.htm</ref><br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Armenia|Armenia]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Aruba|Aruba]]<br />
|Based on [[Netherlands|Dutch]] civil law<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Austria|Austria]]<br />
|The [[Allgemeines bu"rgerliches Gesetzbuch]] (ABGB) of 1811<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Belarus|Belarus]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Belgium|Belgium]]<br />
|Influenced by the [[Napoleonic Code]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Benin|Benin]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Bolivia|Bolivia]]<br />
|Influenced by the [[Napoleonic Code]]<br />
|-<br />
| Herzegovina}} [[Law of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia and Herzegovina]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Brazil|Brazil]]<br />
|Derived from the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] civil law<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Laws of Burkina Faso|Burkina Faso]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Laws of Burundi|Burundi]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Laws of Chad|Chad]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of the People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China]]<br />
|based on civil law system; derived from Soviet and continental civil code legal principles.<br />
|-<br />
|[[Laws of Republic of the Congo|Republic of the Congo]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Laws of Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of the Congo]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Laws of Cote d'Ivoire|Cote d'Ivoire]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Cambodia|Cambodia]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Cape Verde|Cape Verde]]<br />
|Based on [[Portugal|Portuguese]] civil law<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Central African Republic|Central African Republic]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Chile|Chile]]<br />
|The Spanish legal tradition exercised an especially great influence on the [[civil code]] of [[Chile]]. On its turn, the Chilean civil code influenced to a large degree the drafting of the civil codes of other [[Latin-American]] states. For instance, the codes of [[Ecuador]] (1861) and [[Colombia]] (1873) constituted faithful reproductions of the Chilean code, but for very few exceptions. The compiler of the Civil Code of Chile, [[Andre's Bello]], worked for its completion for almost 30 years, using elements, of the Spanish law on the one hand, and of other Western laws, especially of the French one, on the other. Indeed, it is noted that he consulted and used all of the codes that had been issued till then, starting from the era of [[Justinian]].<br />
<br />
The Civil Code came into effect on January 1, 1857. Its technique is regarded as perfect; it is distinguished for the clarity, logic and cohesiveness of its provisions. As mentioned by Arminjon, Nolde, and Wolff ('Traite de droit compare'', Paris, 1950-1952) [[Andre's Bello]] may be regarded as one of the great legislators of mankind. The influence of the [[Napoleonic code]] is great; it is observed however that e.g. in many provisions of [[property law]], the solutions of the French <em>code civil</em> were put aside in favor of pure [[Roman law]].<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Colombia|Colombia]]<br />
|Civil code introduced in 1873. Nearly faithful reproduction of the [[Chilean]] civil code<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Costa Rica|Costa Rica]]<br />
|Influenced by the [[Napoleonic Code]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Croatia|Croatia]]Kazneni zakon RH- Great influence of Austro- Hungarian law system<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Cuba|Cuba]]<br />
|Influenced by Spanish and American law with large elements of [[Communist legal theory]].<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of the Czech Republic|Czech Republic]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Courts of Denmark|Denmark]]<br />
|Scandinavian-German civil law<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Ecuador|Ecuador]]<br />
|Civil code introduced in 1861. Nearly faithful reproduction of the [[Chilean]] civil code<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of El Salvador|El Salvador]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Estonia|Estonia]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Finland|Finland]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[French law|France]]<br />
|Based on the [[Napoleonic code]] (<em>code civil</em> of 1804)<br />
|-<br />
|[[Laws of Equatorial Guinea|Equatorial Guinea]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Laws of Ethiopia|Ethiopia]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Laws of Gabon|Gabon]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Laws of Guinea|Guinea]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Laws of Guinea-Bissau|Guinea-Bissau]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Georgia|Georgia]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[German law|Germany]]<br />
|The [[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch]] of 1900<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Greece|Greece]]<br />
|The Greek [[civil code]] of 1946, highly influenced by the German civil code of 1900 ([[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch]]); the Greek civil code replaced the [[Byzantine-Roman]] civil law in effect in Greece since its independence (Νομική Διάταξη της Ανατολικής Χέρσου Ελλάδος, Legal Provision of Eastern Mainland Greece, November 1821: 'Οι Κοινωνικοί Νόμοι των Αειμνήστων Χριστιανών Αυτοκρατόρων της Ελλάδος μόνοι ισχύουσι κατά το παρόν εις την Ανατολικήν Χέρσον Ελλάδα', 'The Social [i.e. Civil] Laws of the Dear Departed Christian Emperors of Greece [referring to the Byzantine Emperors] alone are in effect at present in Eastern Mainland Greece')<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Guatemala|Guatemala]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Haiti|Haiti]]<br />
|Influenced by the [[Napoleonic Code]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Honduras|Honduras]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Hungary|Hungary]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Iceland|Iceland]]<br />
|Based on Germanic traditional laws and influenced by Medieval Norwegian and Danish laws.<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Italy|Italy]]<br />
|Based on codified [[Roman law]], with elements of the [[Napoleonic civil code]]; civil code of 1942 replaced the original one of 1865<br />
|-<br />
|[[Japanese law|Japan]]<br />
|Modeled after European (primarily German) civil law system. Japanese civil code of 1895.<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Latvia|Latvia]]<br />
|Largely influenced by Germany, medium influences from Russian and Soviet law.<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Lebanon|Lebanon]] <br />
|Modeled after French civil law<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Lithuania|Lithuania]]<br />
|Modeled after Dutch civil law<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Luxembourg|Luxembourg]]<br />
|Influenced by the [[Napoleonic Code]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Legal system of Macau|Macau]]<br>([[China]])<br />
|Based on the Portuguese strand of the continental tradition, itself much influenced by Germany; also influenced by the law of the PRC<br />
|-<br />
|[[Legal system of Mexico|Mexico]]<br />
|"The origins of Mexico's legal system are both ancient and classical, based on the Greek, Roman and French legal systems, and the Mexican system shares more in common with other legal systems throughout the world (especially those in Latin America and most of continental Europe)..." From: http://www.mexonline.com/lawreview.htm Jaime B. Berger Stender Attorney at Law author, Tijuana, B.C., Mexico<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Mongolia|Mongolia]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of the Netherlands|Netherlands]]<br />
|Influenced by the [[Napoleonic Code]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Norway|Norway]]<br />
|Scandinavian-German civil law<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Panama|Panama]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Paraguay|Paraguay]]<br />
|The Paraguayan Civil Code in force since 1987 is largely influenced by the Napoleonic Code and the Argentinian Code<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Peru|Peru]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Polish law|Poland]]<br />
|The Polish Civil Code in force since 1965<br />
|-<br />
|[[Portuguese law|Portugal]]<br />
|Influenced by the [[Napoleonic Code]] and later by the German Civil Law<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of the Republic of China|Republic of China (Taiwan)]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Romanian law|Romania]]<br />
|Based on the [[Napoleonic Code]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Russia|Russia]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Slovakia|Slovakia]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Spain|Spain]]<br />
|Influenced by the [[Napoleonic Code]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Sweden|Sweden]]<br />
|Scandinavian-German civil law. Like all Scandinavian legal systems, it is distinguished by its traditional character and for the fact that it did not adopt elements of Roman law. It is indeed worth mentioning that it assimilated very few elements of foreign laws whatsoever. It is also interesting that the Napoleonic Code had no influence in codification of law in Scandinavia. The historical basis of the law of Sweden, just as for all Nordic countries, is the Old German law. Codification of the law started in Sweden during the 18th century, preceding the codifications of most other European countries. However, neither Sweden, nor any other Nordic state created a civil code of the kind of the <em>Code Civil</em> or the BGB.<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Switzerland|Switzerland]]<br />
|The [[Zivilgesetzbuch]] of 1908 and 1912 (obligations; fifth book)<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Turkey|Turkey]]<br />
|Modeled after the [[Swiss]] civil law ([[Zivilgesetzbuch]]) of 1907; this has been a conscious choice of [[Kemal Atatu"rk]], the founder of the modern [[Turkey|Turkish state]], in order to abolish the [[Islamic law]] ([[Sharia]]), aiming at westernizing the country<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Slovakia|Slovakia]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of Uruguay|Uruguay]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Law of the Vatican City|Vatican City]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[Legal system in Vietnam|Vietnam]]<br />
|[[Communism|Communist legal theory]] and [[French civil law]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Common law===<br />
{{main|Common law}}<br />
[[Image:King John of England signs the Magna Carta - Illustration from Cassell's History of England - Century Edition - published circa 1902.jpg|thumb|right|150px|King John of England signs the Magna Carta]]<br />
Common law and [[equity]] are systems of law whose sources are the decisions in cases by [[judge]]s. Alongside, every system will have a [[legislature]] that passes new laws and statutes, however these do not amend a collected and codified body of law. Common law comes from [[England]] and was inherited by [[Commonwealth countries]], and almost every former colony of the [[British Empire]] ([[Malta]] and [[Scotland]] being exceptions). The doctrine of ''[[stare decisis]]'' or ''precedent by courts'' is the major innovation and difference to codified civil law systems.<br />
<br />
Common law is currently in practice in [[Law of the Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Law of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] (excluding Scotland), [[Law of Australia|Australia]], [[Law of India|India]], [[Law of South Africa|South Africa]], [[Law of Canada|Canada]] (excluding Quebec), and the [[Law of the United States|United States]] (excluding Louisiana) and many more places. In addition to these countries, several others have adapted the common law system into a mixed system. For example, [[Pakistan]], [[India]] and [[Nigeria]] operate largely on a common law system, but incorporate religious law.<br />
<br />
In the [[European Union]] the [[Court of Justice]] takes an approach mixing civil law (based on the treaties) with an attachment to the importance of [[case law]]. One of the most fundamental documents to shape common law is the [[Magna Carta]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Magna Carta|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/magnacarta.html|accessdate=2006-11-10}}</ref> which placed limits on the power of the English Kings. It served as a kind of medieval bill of rights for the aristocracy and the judiciary who developed the law.<br />
<br />
{| width="100%" class="wikitable"<br />
! width="130px" |Country <br />
! Description<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Antigua and Barbuda|Antigua and Barbuda]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Australia|Australia]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Bahamas|Bahamas]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Barbados|Barbados]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Belize|Belize]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Laws of Bhutan|Bhutan]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Canada|Canada]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]], except in [[Quebec]], where civil law system based on [[French law]] prevails<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Dominica|Dominica]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[English law|England and Wales]]<br> (UK)<br />
| primarily [[common law]], with early [[Roman law|Roman]] and some modern [[Continental Europe|continental]] influences<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Fiji|Fiji]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Laws of Ghana|Ghana]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Myanmar|Myanmar]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Grenada|Grenada]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Legal system of Hong Kong|Hong Kong]]<br>([[China]])<br />
| principally based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of the Republic of Ireland|Republic of Ireland]]<br />
| based on Irish law prior to 1920, which was itself based on [[English common law]] <br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Jamaica|Jamaica]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Kiribati|Kiribati]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Marshall Islands|Marshall Islands]]<br />
| based on [[U.S. Law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Nauru|Nauru]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of New Zealand|New Zealand]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Northern Ireland law|Northern Ireland]]<br>(UK)<br />
| based on Irish law prior to 1920, which was itself based on [[English common law]] <br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Palau|Palau]]<br />
| based on [[U.S. Law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Saint Kitts and Nevis|Saint Kitts and Nevis]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Tonga|Tonga]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Trinidad and Tobago|Trinidad and Tobago]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Tuvalu|Tuvalu]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Uganda|Uganda]]<br />
| based on [[English common law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[United States law|United States]]<br />
| [[United States federal courts|Federal court system]] based on English common law; each [[States of the United States|state]] has its own unique legal system, of which all but one ([[Image:Flag_of_Louisiana.svg|22x20px]] [[Louisiana#Law and government|Louisiana's]], which is based on the [[Napoleonic Code]]) is based on English common law<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Religious law===<br />
<br />
Religious law refers to the notion of the [[Word of God|word of God]] being a legal source. The implication of religion for law is a static and unalterable quality, precluding amendment through legislative acts of government or development through judicial precedent. The main kinds of religious law are [[Halakha]] in [[Judaism]], [[Sharia]] in [[Islam]], and [[Canon law]] in some [[Christian]] groups. In some cases these are intended purely as individual [[moral]] guidance, whereas in other cases they are intended and may be used as the basis for a country's legal system. The Halakha is followed by [[Orthodox Judaism|orthodox]] and [[Conservative Judaism|conservative]] Jews in both ecclesiastical and civil relations. No country is fully governed by Halakha, but two Jewish people may decide, because of personal belief, to have a dispute heard by a Jewish court, and be bound by its rulings. Sharia Law governs a number of Islamic countries, including [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Iran]], though most countries use Sharia Law only as a supplement to national law. It can relate to all aspects of civil law, including property rights, contracts or public law. [[Canon law]] is not religious law, properly speaking, because it is not found in revelation. Instead, it is seen as human law inspired by the [[Word of God|word of God]] and applying the demands of that revelation to the actual sitation of the church. Canon law regulates the internal ordering of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the [[Anglican Communion]]. Canon law is amended and adapted by the legislative authority of the church, such as councils of bishops, single bishops for their respective sees, the Pope for the entire Catholic Church, and the Enlish Parliament for the Church of England.<br />
<br />
* [[Law of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]]<br />
* [[Law of Iran|Iran]]<br />
* [[Law of Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]]<br />
* [[Law of Sudan|Sudan]]<br />
<br />
===Pluralistic systems===<br />
<br />
===Civil law and common law===<br />
{| width="100%" class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! width="130px" |Country <br />
! Description <br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Botswana|Botswana]]<br />
| South African law (a mixed system) transferred <em>uno acto</em> through a proclamation of reception<br />
|-<br />
| [[Laws of Cameroon|Cameroon]]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Cyprus|Cyprus]]<br />
| Based on [[English common law]] (Cyprus was a British colony 1878-1960), with admixtures of French and [[Greece|Greek]] civil and public law, [[Italy|Italian]] civil law, [[India]]n contract law, [[Greek Orthodox]] canon law, [[Muslim]] religious law, and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] civil law.<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Guyana|Guyana]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Israel|Israel]]<br />
| Originally (1948) based on English common law; in the process, influenced by German civil law—for instance, between 1962 and 1981, the [[Knesset]] issued twenty (20) wide-ranging laws, which were clearly influenced by European continental law, and were in the form of codes<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Lesotho|Lesotho]]<br />
| South African law (a mixed system) transferred <em>uno acto</em> through a proclamation of reception<br />
|-<br />
| [[Image:Flag_of_Louisiana.svg|22x20px]] [[Law of Louisiana|Louisiana]]<br>(U.S.)<br />
| Based on the French [[Napoleonic Code]]; the modern legal system of the state of [[Louisiana]] has its origin in the [[Louisiana Purchase]] (i.e. the sale of Louisiana—not coterminous with the present eponymous state—by Napoleon to the United States of America in 1803), while federal laws (based on common law) are in effect in Louisiana as well.<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Malta|Malta]]<br />
|Initially based on [[Roman Law]] and eventually progressed to the Code de Rohan, [[Code Napoleon]] with influences from Italian Civil Law. [[English common law]] however is also a source of Maltese Law, most notably in [[Public Law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Mauritius|Mauritius]] <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Namibia|Namibia]]<br />
| South African law (a mixed system) transferred <em>uno acto</em> through a proclamation of reception<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Philippines|Philippines]]<br />
| Based on Spanish law; influenced by U.S. common law after 1898 (victory of the U.S. over Spain in the Spanish-American war of 1898 and cession of Philippines to the U.S.)<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]<br> (U.S.)<br />
| Based on Spanish law; influenced by U.S. common law after 1898 (victory of the U.S. over Spain in the Spanish-American war of 1898 and cession of Puerto Rico to the U.S.)<br />
|-<br />
| [[Quebec law|Quebec]]<br>(Canada)<br />
| After the defeat of the [[France|French]] in the battle at the [[Plains of Abraham]], the [[Great Britain|British]] allowed them to keep their language ([[French language|French]]), their religion ([[Roman Catholicism]]), and their legal system ([[civil law]]). However, as [[Quebec]] is part of the Canadian Confederation, English-based laws applied at the federal level are in effect in Quebec also.<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Saint Lucia|Saint Lucia]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| [[Scots law|Scotland]]<br>(UK)<br />
| based on [[Roman law|Roman]] and continental law, with common law elements dating back to the [[Legal institutions of Scotland in the High Middle Ages|High Middle Ages]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Seychelles|Seychelles]] <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of South Africa|South Africa]] <br />
| An amalgam of [[England|English]] [[common law]] and [[Roman law|Roman]]-[[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[civil law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]]<br />
| An amalgam of [[England|English]] [[common law]], [[Roman law|Roman]]-[[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[civil law]] and [[Customary Law]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Swaziland|Swaziland]]<br />
| South African law (a mixed system) transferred <em>uno acto</em> through a proclamation of reception<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Thailand|Thailand]]|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Vanuatu|Vanuatu]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]]<br />
| South African law (a mixed system) transferred <em>uno acto</em> through a proclamation of reception<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Civil law and religious law===<br />
{| width="100%" class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! width="130px" |Country <br />
! Description <br />
|-<br />
| [[Laws of Algeria|Algeria]]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| [[Laws of Comoros|Comoros]]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| [[Laws of Djibouti|Djibouti]]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| [[Laws of Egypt|Egypt]]<br />
|Based on Islamic law and French civil law system<br />
|-<br />
| [[Laws of Eritrea|Eritrea]]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| [[Laws of Indonesia|Indonesia]]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| [[Laws of Morocco|Morocco]]<br />
| Based on Islamic law and French and Spanish civil law system<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Common law and religious law===<br />
{| width="100%" class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
! width="130px"|Country <br />
! Description <br />
|-<br />
| [[Laws of Bahrain|Bahrain]]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| [[Laws of Bangladesh|Bangladesh]]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| [[Laws of Brunei|Brunei]]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| [[Laws of Gambia|Gambia]]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| [[Law in India|India]]<br />
| based on English common law, separate personal law codes apply to [[Muslims]], [[Christians]], and [[Hindus]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Laws of Oman|Oman]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| [[Law of Pakistan|Pakistan]]<br />
| based on English Common Law, some [[Islamic Law]] applications in [[inheritance]]. [[Tribal Law]] in [[Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Pakistan|FATA]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Laws of Qatar|Qatar]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| [[Laws of Singapore|Singapore]]<br />
| based on English common law<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
<br />
* Moustaira Elina N., <em>Comparative Law: University Courses (in Greek)</em>, Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers, Athens, 2004, ISBN 960-15-1267-5<br />
* Moustaira Elina N., <em>Milestones in the Course of Comparative Law: Thesis and Antithesis (in Greek)</em>, Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers, Athens, 2003, ISBN 960-15-1097-4<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Comparative law]]<br />
*[[Socialist law]]<br />
*[[Soviet law]]<br />
*[[Tribal sovereignty]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.droitcivil.uottawa.ca/world-legal-systems/eng-monde.php World Legal Systems], Website of the Faculty of Law of the University of Ottawa<br />
* [http://ausicl.com Australian Institute of Comparative Legal Systems]<br />
*[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/fields/2100.html Factbook list of legal systems]<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
[[Category:Legal Rulings]]</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=Halakhah_of_Shammai_in_the_Qur%27an&diff=3987Halakhah of Shammai in the Qur'an2007-03-16T12:17:39Z<p>HaNoahide: /* Introducton */</p>
<hr />
<div>William Saint. Clair Tisdall (1859-1928) was a British historian and philologist who served as the Secretary of the Church of England's Missionary Society in Isfahan, Persia. He was fluent in several Middle Eastern languages including Arabic and spent much time researching the sources of Islam and the Qur'an in the original languages. <br />
<br />
One of William Saint. Clair Tisdall's studies are included in ''Origins of the Koran|The Origins of The Koran: Classic Essays on Islam’s Holy Book'' edited by [[Ibn Warraq]]. Chapter III include a section on ''Influence of Sabian and Jewish Ideas and Practices''.<br />
<br />
While this work is dated and strongly reflects 19th century prejudices, much of the information is still valid,and deserves to be updated with more recent research.<br />
<br />
==Introducton==<br />
<br />
At the period when Mohammed was using the utmost endeavor to turn his people from idolatry to the Faith of Abraham, the Arabs had no religious writings acknowledged in common by them all, so that it was a matter of extreme difficulty to make them see the evils of their native faiths. There were three religions in the Peninsula - the Sabaean<ref>The Sabaean have disappeared. No trace of them anywhere remains, and even of their history but little is known. We are told by Eastern authorities (what follows is from Abu Feda, who quotes from Abu Isa alMaghrabi) that they were the first of all peoples who inhabited Syria; that they derived their faith from Seth and Idris; and that they possessed a book called Pages of Seth, In which were inculcated righteousness, truth, bravery, care of the poor, and avoidance of evil. They had seven times for prayer, five of which were at the same hour as chosen by the Prophet. They prayed also for the dead, but without prostration; fasted thirty days from night to sunrise, and also if any new moon rose badly, for the remaining day of the month; observed Fed from the setting of their five stars; and venerated the Kaaba. Hence we see that the Sabaeans kept many observances still in force among the Moslems.</ref>, Jewish, and Christian - each of which, as we hope to show, helped to nurse Islam, which at the first lay like an infant in its cradle.<br />
<br />
==Jewish Sources==<br />
<br />
We turn to the Jews. Of Course it is known to all how numerous and powerful the race was in Arabia at the time of Mohammed, and especially before the Hijra. Amongst their chief tribes were the Beni Coreitza, Cainucaa, and Nadhir, having their three villages in the vicinity of Medina.<br />
<br />
When it became manifest that the Jews would in no wise recognize the prophetic office of Mohammed, he fought several severe battles with them and, not without difficulty, either took them prisoners and slew them with the sword, or at last expelled them from the land. Now, although these Jews were an ignorant people, yet they possessed and carefully preserved the Torah, the Psalms, etc., and were called (as also the Christians) The People of the Book. Though the nation at large knew little or nothing of Hebrew, yet (like the Jews we see in Persia at the present day) they were familiar with the stories of the Talmud and the foolish tales which had come down from their ancestors, and which, being ignorant of their own Sacred books, they regarded as holy and divine.<br />
<br />
The ignorant Arabs of the day looked upon their neighbors the Jews with honor and respect as being of the seed of Abraham, and possessed of the Word of God. Hence when the Prophet turned aside from idols as hateful to the Almighty, and sought to bring his people back to the faith of Abraham, he betook himself with the utmost care to learn in what the teaching, customs, and obligations of that Faith consisted. Comparing these with the Koran and Tradition, we find the closest similarity between the two. Thus the Koran throughout bears witness to the faith of Abraham, to the truth of the Jewish religion, and the heavenly origin of their divine books. The following passages will be found to that effect:- Dispute not with the People of the Book, but in the mildest way, excepting such as behave injuriously; and say, We believe in that which has been revealed unto us, and in that which has been revealed unto you; our God and your God is One, and to Him we are resigned. And again:- Say, We believe in God, and in that which has been sent down unto us, and and in that which was sent down unto Abraham and Ishmael, and Isaac and Jacob, and the Tribes; and in that which was delivered unto Moses and Jesus, and in that which was delivered to the Prophets from the Lord. We make no distinction between any of them; and to Him we are resigned. At this period, also, Mohammed made the Holy House (Jerusalem) the Qibla of his followers, being then, (as it has since remained) the Qibla of the Jews.<br />
<br />
To this it might be objected that Mohammed, as the "illiterate prophet,"<ref>Surah vii. 156. The word used for illiterate is Ommy. R. Geiger's view is that this word has an altogether different meaning -- viz. that Mohammed held he was of the Ommat or Arab people, and not an Ajemy or non-Arab, as a Jew would be held to be. But seeing that the word has been universally held to mean unlearned (and unable to read), I think we must accept that interpretation. It does not, however, much matter in the present argument.</ref> must have been unable to read, and how then could he have gained all this knowledge from Jewish literature? But even admitting it to have been so, it must still have been easy enough for him to have learned all about their beliefs and customs and tales from his companions, such as Abdullah, Waraca, or even himself from his Jewish friends. For these people, though they had but an imperfect knowledge of the Old Testament Scriptures, yet well knew the foolish tales current amongst the Jewish nation. <br />
<br />
==Comparison of Qur'an to ''Aggadah'' in the Talmud==<br />
<br />
And now, if we compare the Koran with the tales in the Talmud and other books still current among the Jews, it becomes evident that although the Koran speaks of Abraham and many others of whom we read in the Torah, still all the wild stories it tells us are taken from Jewish traditional Sources. And we shall now give a few specimens to prove that it is so.<br />
<br />
===Cain and Abel.===<br />
<br />
In Surah v. 30-35 we have the following passage:-<br />
<br />
:And tell them the story truly of the two sons of Adam. When they offered up their sacrifice, and it was accepted from one of them, and not accepted from the other, Cain said, "I will kill thee." Abel answered, "God accepteth (offerings) of the pious alone. If thou stretchest forth thine hand against me to kill me, I will not stretch forth my hand to kill thee; for I fear God, the Lord of all worlds. I desire that thou shouldest bear my sin and thine own sin, and become a dweller in the Fire, for that is the punishment of the oppressor." But the soul of Cain inclined him to slay his brother, and he slew him; then he became one of the destroyed. And God sent a raven which scratched the earth to shew him how he should hide his brother's body. He said, "Woe is me! I am not able to belike the raven"; and he became one of those that repent (v. 35). For this cause we wrote unto the children of Israel that he who slayeth a soul, -- without having slain a soul or committed wickedness in the earth, - shall be as if he had slain all mankind; and whosoever saveth a soul alive, shall be as if he had saved all mankind.<br />
<br />
Now this conversation and affair of Cain and Abel, as given above in the Koran, has been told us in a variety of ways by the Jews. Thus when Cain, according to them, said there was no punishment for sin and no reward for virtue, Abel, holding just exactly the reverse, was killed by Cain with a stone. So also in the book Pirke Rabbi Eleazer, we find the Source of the burying of Abel as described in the Coran, there being no difference excepting that the raven indicates the mode to Adam instead of to Cain, as follows:-Adam and Eve, sitting by the corpse, wept not knowing what to do, for they had as yet no knowledge of burial. A raven coming up, took the dead body of its fellow, and having scratched up the earth, buried it thus before their eyes. Adam said, Let us follow the example of the raven, and so taking up Abel's body buried it at once.<br />
<br />
If the Reader will look at the last verse (35) in the quotation above from Surah v. of the Koran, he will see that it has no connection with the one preceding. The relation is explained thus in the Mishnah Sanhedrin, where in quoting from Genesis the verse, - The voice of thy brother's blood crieth unto me from the ground, 2- the Commentator writes as follows:- "As regards Cain who killed his brother, the Lord addressing him does not say, 'The voice of thy brother's blood crieth out,' but 'the voice of his Bloods'; - meaning not his blood alone, but that of his descendants; and this to shew that since Adam was created alone, so he that kills an Israelite is, by the plural here used, counted as if he had killed the world at large; and he who saves a single Israelite is counted as if he had saved the whole world." Now, if we look at the thirty-fifth verse of the text above quoted, it will be found almost exactly the same as these last words of this old Jewish commentary. But we see that only part is given in the Koran, and the other part omitted. And this omitted part is the connecting link between the two passages in the Koran, without which they are unintelligible.<br />
<br />
===Abraham saved from Nimrod's fire===<br />
<br />
The story is scattered over various passages of the Koran, chiefly in those noted below. 3 Now whoever will read these, as well as the Traditional Records of the Moslems, 4 will at once perceive that the tale as there told has been taken from one of the ancient Jewish books called Midrash Rabbhh. To bring this clearly to view, we must first shew the history as given in the Koran and Moslem writings, and then compare it with the Jewish tale in the above book.<br />
<br />
In a work of Abdul Feda we have the<br />
<br />
1. LTargum of Jonathan ben Uzziah; also the Targum of Jerusalem. In Arabic Cain is called Cabtl. <br />
<br />
2 Gen. iv. 10, "Bloods" in the margin for blood.<br />
<br />
3. Surah ii. 260, vi. 74-84, xxi. 52-72, xix. 42-50, xxvi. 69-79,xxix.15, 16, xxxvii. 81-95, xliii. 25-27, Ix. 4, and other passages <br />
<br />
4. Such as the Qissas al Anbia and ArPish al Majalis.<br />
<br />
5 Ancient History from the Mukhtasar fi Akhb~r ii Bashar.<br />
<br />
Moslem story as follows. 5. ‘Azar, Abraham's father used to construct idols, and hand them over to his son to sell Abraham would go about crying, "Who will buy that which will hurt and not benefit him?" Then when God Almighty commanded him to call his people to the Divine unity, his father refused the call, and so did his people. Thus the matter spread abroad till it reached Nimrod, son of Cush, king over the country who took Father Abraham, and cast him into a fierce fire; but the fire grew cool and pleasant unto Abraham, who came out of it after some days. And thereupon his people believed in him.<br />
<br />
Again, in the Araish al Majalis we read: Before this, when Abraham one night came up out of his cave and saw the stars before the moon arose, he said: This is my Preserver. (Surah 6:76) And when the night overshadowed him, he saw a star, and said, This is my Lord; and when it set, he said, ! love not those that · set. And when he saw the moon rising, he said, This is my Lord; but when it set, he said, Verily if my Lord direct me not, I shall be of those that go astray. And when he saw the sun rising, he said, This is my Lord; this is the greatest. But when it set, he said, O my people! Verily I am clear of that which ye associate together with God. Verily I direct my face unto him who hath created the heavens and the earth. I am orthodox, and not one of the idolaters.<br />
<br />
They say that Abraham's father used to make idol images and give them to Abraham to sell. So Abraham taking them about would cry: "These will neither hurt nor help him that buys," so that no one bought from him. And when it was not sold, he took an image to the stream, and striking its head, would say, Drink, my poor one! in derision, - for his people and the heathen around him to hear. So when his people objected, he said, Ah! do ye dispute with me concerning God, and verily God hath directed me….And this Is our argument wherewith We furnished Abraham for his people. We raise the dignity of whom we wish, for thy Lord is wise and knowing. (Surah 6: 80-85) And so in the end Abraham overcame his, People by such arguments. Then he called his father Azar to the true faith, and said: O my father, wherefore dost thou worship that which , neither hears nor sees, nor yet doth profit thee in any way and so on to the end of the story. (Surah 19:40) But his rather refused that to which Abraham called him; whereupon Abraham cried aloud to his, people that he was free from what they worshipped and thus made known his faith to them. He said, what think ye? That which ye worship, and your forefathers also, are mine enemies, excepting only the lord of the worlds (Surah 26:75-77) " They said, Whom then dost thou worship? He answered, "The Lord of all worlds." "Dost thou mean Nimrod?" "Nay, but he that created me and guideth me," and so on. The thing then spread abroad among the people, till it reached the ears of the tyrant Nimrod, Who sent for him, and said: "O Abraham! Dost thou hold him to be thy god that hath Sent thee; dost thou call to his worship and speak of his power to those that worship other than him? Who is he?" Abraham replied. "My Lord, he that giveth life, and giveth death." (surah 2:260) Nimrod answered . "I give life, and cause to die." A. "How dost thou make alive, and cause to die?" N. "I take two men Who at my hands deserve death, one I kiII, who thus dies; the other I forgive. who thus is made alive." Whereupon Abraham answered, "l/erily God bringeth the sun from the East, now do thou bring him from the West."(Surah 2:260) Thereupon Nimrod was confounded, and returned him no reply. The people then went away to celebrate their Eed, and Abraham, taking the opportunity, broke all the idols but the biggest, and then the story proceeds as follows: When they had prepared food, they set It before their gods and said, "When the time comes we shall return, and the gods having blessed the meat we shall eat thereof." So when Abraham looked upon the gods, and what was set before them, he said derisively. "Ah! ye are not eating", and when no answer came, "What aileth you, that ye do not speak?" and he turned upon them and smote them with his right hand.(Surah 37:90) And he kept striking tht:m with a hatchet in his hand. until there remained none but the biggest of thenl. and upon Its neck he hung the axe.(Surah 21:59) ) He broke them all in pieces except the biggest, that they might lay the blame on it Now when the People returned from their Eed<br />
<br />
1. Surah vi. 76, etc.; all is from the Koran so far as in italics; and so also in the next two pages.<br />
<br />
2. Cotada and Al Sidy are quoted here; and it is added from Al Dzahhak, "Perhaps they may giveevidence as to what we should do, and punish him." <br />
<br />
to the house of their gods, and saw it in such a Stafe, they said, Who hath done this to our gods? Verily he is a wicked one. They answered, We heard a young man speaking of them They call him Abraham. He it is, we think, who hath done it. When this reached the tyrant Nimrod and his chief men, They said, Bring him before the eyes of the people; perhaps they will bear witness that he hath donethis thing. And they were afraid to seize him without evidence.(2) So they brought him and said: Hast thou done this unto our gods, O Abraham? He answered, Nay but that big one hath done it; he was angry that ye worshipped along with him these little idols, and he so much bigger than all; and he brake the whole of them in pieces. Now ask them if they can speak.1 When he had said this, they turned their backs, and said (among themselves), "Verily it is ye that are the transgressors.. We have never seen him but telling us that we transgress, having those little idols and this great one." So they broke the heads of them all, and were amazed that they neither spake nor made any opposition. Then they said (to Abraham), Certainly thou knowest that they speak not. Thus when the affair with Abraham was ended, he said to them: Ah! do ye indeed worship, besides God, that which cannot profit you at all, nor can it injure you. Fie on you, and on that which ye worship besides God! Ah, do ye not understand?<br />
<br />
When thus overthrown and unable to make any answer, they called out, Burn him, and avenge your gods if ye do it. Abdallah tells us that the man who cried thus was a Kurd called Zeinun; and.the Lord caused the earth to open under him, and there he lies buried till the day of Judgment. When Nimrod and his people were thus gathered together to burn Abraham, they imprisoned him in a house, and built for him a great pile, as we read in Surah Saffat: They said, Build a pile for him and cast him into the glowing fire. Then they gathered together quantities of wood and stuff to burn; and so, by the grace of God, Abraham came out of the fire safe and sound, with the words on his lips, - God is sufficient for me (Surah 39;39); and He is the best Supporter (Surah 3. 37). For the Lord said, O Fire! be thou cool and pleasant unto Abraham.(2)<br />
<br />
Now, let us compare the story of Abraham as current amongst the Jews, with the same story in Koran and Tradition as given above, and see how they differ or agree. The following is from the Midrash Rabbah on Abraham brought out of Ur (Gen. xv. 7).<br />
<br />
Midrash Rabbah:<br />
<br />
:Terah used to make images. Going out one day, he told his son Abraham to sell them. When a man came to buy, Abraham asked him how old he was. Fifty or sixty years, he replied. Strange, said the other, that a man sixty years of age should worship things hardly a few days old! On hearing which the man, ashamed, passed on. Then a woman carrying in her hand a cup of wheaten flour said, Place this before the idols. On which, Abraham, getting up, took his staff in his hand, and having broken the idols with it, placed the staff in the hand of the biggest. His father coming up, cried, "Who hath done all this?" Abraham said, "What can be concealed from thee? A woman carrying a cup of wheaten flour asked me to place it before the gods; I took and placed it before them; one said, I will eat it first, and another, I will eat first. Then the big one took the staff, and broke them all in pieces." His father: "Why do you tell such a foolish tale to me? Do these know anything?" He answered, "Does thine ear hear what thy mouths speaks?" On this his father seized and made him over to Nimrod, who bade him worship Fire. Abraham: "Rather worship Water that putteth out Fire." N. "Then worship Water." A. "Rather worship that which bringeth Water." N. "Then worship the Cloud." A. "in such case, let ua worship Wind that drives away the Cloud." N. "Then worship Wind." A. "Rather let us worship Man that standeth against the wind." On this<br />
<br />
1 A note is here added to the following purport:-- Mohammaed on this remarked that Abraham in all told three lies, all on behalf of the Lord, namely, "I am sick"; "the big one hath done this"; and what he said to the King regarding Sarah, "She is my sister."<br />
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2 In the last few pages the quotations from the Koran are all from Surahs 21. and 37., and the verses being so numerous and detached are not numbered in detail; but they will be found in passages succeeding verse 52 of the former, and verse 84 of the latter Surah. The Koran passages are throughout printed in italics.<br />
<br />
Nimrod closed: - "If thou arguest with me about things which I am unable to worship other than Fire, into it I will cast thee; then, let the God thou worshippest deliver thee there from." So Abraham went down into the flames, and remained there safe and unhurt.<br />
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Comparing, now, this Jewish story with what we saw of it in the Koran, little difference will be found; and what there is no doubt arose from Mohammed hearing of it by the ear from the Jews. What makes this the more likely is that Abraham's father is in the Koran called Azar,(Surah 6.74) while both in the Midrash and Torah he is called Terah. But the Prophet probably heard the name in Syria (where, as we learn from Eusebius, the name had somewhat of a similar sound), and so remembered it.<br />
<br />
The Moslems, of course, hold that their Prophet gained the tale of Abraham's being cast into the fire neither from Jews nol Christians, but through Gabriel from on high; and as the Jews, being children of Abraham, so accepted it, the Koran, they say, must be right. But it could only have been the common folk among the Jews who believed it so; for those who had any knowledge of its origin must have known its puerility.<br />
<br />
The origin of the whole story will be found in Genesis 15:7: I am the Lord that brought thee out of Ur of the Chaldees. Now Ur in Babylonish means a "city" as In Ur-Shalim (Jerusalem), "the City of Peace." And the Chaldaean Ur1 was the residence of Abraham. This name Ur closely resembles in speech another word, Or signifying light or fire. And so ages after, a Jewish Commentator2. Ignorant of. Babylonish, when translating the Scripture into Chaldean, put the above verse from Genesis, as follows: Im the Lord that delivered thee out of the Chaldean fiery oven. The Same Ignorant writer has also the following comment on Genesis 11:27: "Now this happened at the time when Nimrod cast Abraham into the oven of fire, because he would not worship the idols, that leave was withheld from the fire to hurt him - a strange confusion of words, - Ur the city, for Or light and fire. It is as if a Persian seeing notice of the departure of the English post, should put in his diary that an Englishman had lost his skin, - not knowing that the same word for skin in Persian means the Post in English. No wonder then that an ignorant Jew should have mistaken a word like this, and made it the foundation whereon to build the grand tale of Abraham's fiery Oven. But it is somewhat difficult to understand how a Prophet like Mohammed could have given credence to such a fable, and entered it in a revelation held to have come down from heaven. And yet the evidence of it all is complete, as quoted above from the Jewish writer. Apart from this we know from Genesis that Nimrod lived not in the days of Abraham but ages before his birth. The name indeed is not in the Coran, though freely given in the Moslem Commentaries and Tradition. As if a historian should tell us that Alexander the Great cast Nadir Shah into the fire, not knowing the ages that elapsed between the two, or that Nadir never was so thrown.<br />
<br />
===Visit of the Queen of Saba (Sheba) to Solomon===<br />
<br />
The story of Balkis, Queen of Saba, as told at length in the Koran, corresponds so closely with what we find in the II. Targum of the Book of Esther, that it was evidently taken from it, as heard by Mohammed from some Jewish source. The following is from the<br />
<br />
Surah of the Ant (27.17et seq):<br />
<br />
:His armies were gathered together unto Solomon, consisting of Genii, men and birds, and they were kept back...Solomon smiled at the ant and said: O I,ord! may I do that which is right and well pleasing unto thee, so that thou introduce me amongst thy servants the righteous. And he viewed the birds and said, Why is it that I see not the Hudhud (Lapwing)? Is she among the absent ones? Truly I will chastise her with a severe chastisement, or will put her to death unless she bring a just excuse. Hut she did not wait long, and said, I have viewed a country that thou hast not seen: and I come unto thee from Saba with certain news. I found a female ruling over them, surrounded with every kind of possession, and having a magnificent Throne. I found her and her people worshipping the Sun apart from God. Satan hath made their deeds pleasant unto them, and hath turned them aside from the right way, and they are not rightly directed, -- lest they should worship God who manifesteth that which is in heaven and earth, and knoweth what they conceal and what they discover. God! there is no God but he, the Lord of the great Throne! Solomon said: We shall see whether thou tellest the truth or art amongst the liars. Go with this my letter, and having delivered it to them turn aside, and see what answer they return. The Queen having received it, said: O ye Nobles! verily an honourable letter hath been delivered unto me. It is from Solomon. It is in the name of the Most Merciful God; "Rise not up against me; but come ye submissive unto me." She said: O ye Nobles! advise me in the affair; I will not resolve upon it, until ye be witnesses thereof. They said: We are men of strength and of great prowess; but the matter belongeth unto thee: see therefore what thou wilt command. She said: Verily kings when they enter a city waste it, and abuse its most powerful inhabitants; and so will they do. But I will send gifts unto them, and wait to see what the messengers will return with. So when they went to Solomon, he said: Ah! do ye present me with wealth? Verily that which God hath given unto me is better than that which he hath given you, but ye do rejoice in your gifts. Return unto them; we will surely come unto them with an army which they cannot withstand, and we shall drive them thence humbled and contemptible. O ye Nobles (he continued), which of you will bring me her Throne, before they come submissive unto me? A giant of the Genii cried, I will bring it unto thee before thou gettest up from thy place, for I am strong in this, and to be trusted. And one who had knowledge of the Scriptures: I will bring it unto thee before the twinkling of thine eye. Now when (Solomon) saw it placed before him he said: This is a favour of my Lord, that he may try me whether I am grateful or ungrateful; he that Is grateful is grateful for his own benefit but he that is ungrateful, verily the Lord is rich and beneficent. And (Solomon) said: Alter her throne, that we may see whether she be rightly directed, or be amongst those who are not rightly directed. And when she came, it was said, Is this thy throne? She said, It is as if it were; and knowledge hath been bestowed upon us before this, and we are resigned (Unto God). But that which she worshipped besides had turned her aside, for she Was of an unbelieving people. It was said to her, Enter the Palace. And when she saw it, she imagined that it was a great surface of water, and she uncovered her legs, when (Solomon) Said, Verily it is a palace floored with glass. And she said, Truly I have done injury to my own soul, and I resign myself, along with Solomon, unto God, the Lord of all creatures. (Surah 27. 20-45).<br />
<br />
Such is the account the Koran gives us of Queen Of Saba. What it tells us of the Throne differs but little from the Targum, where it is said to have belonged to Solomon, and to have had no other like it in any land. There were six Steps of gold to ascend, and on each twelve golden Lions, while twelve eagles of gold were Perched around. Four-and-twenty other eagles cast their shadow from above upon the King, and when he wished to move anywhere, these powerful eagles descending would lift the Throne and carry it wherever he wished. Thus they performed, according to the Targum, the same duty the Koran tells us the Genii did. But otherwise inrespect of Queen Of Saba, her visit to Solomon, the letter sent by him to her, etc., there is a marvellous resemblance between the two, excepting this, indeed, that in place of the Lapwing of the Koran, the Targum Speaks of a Red-cock, - Not a very vital difference after all! The whole story is told in the Targum as follows:-<br />
<br />
II TARGUM of Ester<br />
<br />
:At another time, when the heart of Solomon was gladdened with wine, he gave orders for the beasts of the land, the birds of the air, the creeping things of the earth, the demons from above and the Genii, to be brought, that they might dance around him, in order that all the kings waiting upon him might behold his grandeur. And all the royal scribes summoned by their names before him; in fact, all were there except the captives and prisoners and those in charge of them. Just then the Red-cock, enjoying itself, could not be found; and King Solomon said that they should seize and bring it by force, and indeed he sought to kill it. But just then the cock appeared in presence of the King, and said: O Lord, King of the earth! having applied thine ear, listen to my words. It is hardly three months since I made a firm resolution within me that I would not eat a crumb of bread, nor drink a drop of water until I had seen the whole world, and over it make my flight, saying to myself, I must know the city and the kingdom which is not subject to thee, my Lord King. Then I found the fortified city Qitor in the Eastern lands, and around it are stones of gold and silver in the streets plentiful as rubbish, and trees planted from the beginning of the world, and rivers to water it, flowing out of the garden of Eden. Many men are there wearing garlands from the garden close by. They shoot arrows, but cannot use the bow. They are ruled by a woman, called Queen of Sheba. Now if it please my Lord King, thy servant, having bound up my girdle, will set out for the fort Qitor in Sheba; and having "bound their Kings with chains and their Nobles with links of iron," will bring them into thy presence. The proposal pleased the King, and the scribes prepared a dispatch, which was placed under the bird's wing, and away it flew high up in the sky. It grew strong surrounded by a crowd of birds, and reached the Fort of Sheba. By chance the Queen of Sheba was out in the morning worshipping the sea; and the air being darkened by the multitude of birds, she became so alarmed as to rend her clothes in trouble and distress. Just then the Cock alighted by her, and she seeing the letter under its wing opened and read it as follows: "King Solomon sendeth to thee his salaam, and saith, The high and holy One hath set me over the beasts of the field, etc.; and the kings of the four Quarters send to ask after my welfare. Now if it please thee to come and ask after my welfare, I will set thee high above them all. But if it please thee not, I will send kings and armies against thee; - the beasts of the field are my people, the birds of the air my riders, the demons and genii thine enemies, -- to imprison you, to slay and to feed upon you." When the Queen of Sheba heard it, she again rent her garments, and sending for her Nobles asked their advice. They knew not Solomon, but advised her to send vessels by the sea, full of beautiful ornaments and gems, together with 6000 boys and girls in purple garments, who had all been born at the same moment; also to send a letter promising to visit him by the end of the year. It was a journey of seven years but she promised to come in three. When at last she came, Solomon sent a messenger shining in brilliant attire, like the morning dawn, to meet her. As they came together, she stepped from her carriage. "Why dost thou thus?" he asked. "Art thou not Solomon?" she said. "Nay, I am but a servant that standeth in his presence." The queen at once addressed a parable to her followers in compliment to him, and then was led by him to the Court. Solomon hearing she had come, arose and sat down in the Palace of glass. When the Queen of Sheba saw it, she thought that the glass floor was water, and so in crossing over lifted up her garments. When Solomon seeing the hair about her legs, cried out to her: Thy beauty is the beauty of women, but thy hair is as the hair of men; hair is good in man, but in wonian It is not becoming. On this she said: My Lord, I have three enigmas to put to thee. If thou canst answer them, I shall know that thou art a wise man: but if not thou art like all around thee. When he had answered all three, she replied, astonished: Blessed be the Lord thy God, who hath placed thee on the throne that thou mightest rule with right and justice. And she gave to Solomon much gold and silver; and he to her whatsoever she desired.<br />
<br />
In the Jewish statement, we see that the Queen put several enigmas for Solomon to solve; and though this is not mentioned in the Koran, it is In the Moslem traditions. And so with the story of her legs; for in the Aiaish al Majalis we find the following: - When the Queen was about to enter the Palace, she fancied the glass floor to be a sheet of water, and so She uncovered her legs, that is, to pass over to Solomon; and lo her legs and felt were covered with hair; which when Solomon saw, he turned his sight from her, and called out, The floor is plain glass.<br />
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Here we would ask whether there is any reality whatever in all this story. There is indeed so much as we find in the First Book of Kings, 10: 1-11 (also see 2 Chronicles 9 1-9) which is as follows:-<br />
<br />
:And when the queen of Sheba heard of the fame of Solomon concerning the name of the Lord, she came to prove him with hard questions. And she came to Jerusalem with a very great train, with camels that bare spices, and very much gold, and precious stones: and when she was come to Solomon, she communed with him of all that was in her heart. And Solomon told her all her questions: there was not any thing hid from the king, which he told her not. And when the queen of Sheba had seen all Solomon's wisdom, and the house that he had built, and the meat of his table, and the sitting of his servants, and the attendance of his ministers, and their apparel, and his cupbearers, and his ascent by which he went up unto the house of the Lord; there was no more spirit in her. And she said to the king, It was a true report that I heard in mine own land of thy acts and of thy wisdom. Howbeit I believed not the words, until I came, and mine eyes had seen it: and, behold, the half was not told me: thy wisdom and prosperity exceedeth the fame which I heard. Happy are thy men, happy are these thy servants, which stand continually before thee, and that hear thy wisdom. Blessed be the Lord thy God, which delighted in thee, to set thee on the throne of Israel: because the I,ord loved Israel for ever, therefore made he thee king, to do judgment and justice. And she gave the king an hundred and twenty talents of gold, and of spices very great store, and precious stones: there came no more such abundance of spices as these which the queen of Sheba gave to king Solomon. I Kings 10:1-11<br />
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Now these are the facts of the Queen's visit, and all beyond mere fiction. The Jews themselves admit it to be so, - excepting, indeed, Solomon's magnificent Throne, though not its being carried aloft. The Koran account of Solomon ruling over Demons, Genii, etc., is in entire accord with what we have cited from the Targum; and it is curious to find, as learned Jews tell us, that the origin of the notion lay in the similarity of two Hebrew words 1., with two kindred words signifying demons and genii, and the ignorant Commentator confounding them together led to the strange error.<br />
<br />
In concluding our notice of the fanciful tale which we have given from the Jewish Targum, we might say that it reminds one of such stories as we find in the "Arabian Nights." But strange that the Prophet could not have seen it so. Having heard it from his Jewish friends, he evidently fancied that it had been read by them in their inspired Scriptures, and as such introduced it, as we find, into the Koran.<br />
<br />
===Harat and Marut===<br />
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There are many other stories in the Koran taken from the fanciful details of Jewish writers; but we shall content ourselves with this one other before entering on more general questions. We shall first recite the tale of those two Spirits as given in the Koran and Tradition, and then compare it with the same as told by Jewish writers. The passage in the Coran is this:-- Solomon was not an unbeliever; but the Devils believed not. They taught men sorcery, and that which was sent down to the two angels at Babel, - Harat and Marut. Yet these taught no man until they had said, - Verily we are a temptation, therefore be not an unbeliever. (Surah 2:96)<br />
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The following is from the Araish al Majalis:-<br />
<br />
:The Commentators say that when the angels saw the evil doings of mankind ascending up to heaven (and that was in the days of Idris), they were distressed and complained thus against them: Thou hast chosen these to be the rulers upon earth, and lo they sin against thee. Then said the Almighty: If I should send you upon the earth, and treat you as I have treated them, ye would do just as they do They said, O our Lord, it would not become us to sin against thee. Then said the Lord, Choose two angels from the best of you, and I will send them down unto the earth. So they chose Harut and Marut; who were among the best and most pious amongst them.<br />
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Al Kalby's version:-- The Almighty said: Choose ye three: so they chose (Azz, i.e) Harut, and (Azabi, i.e.) Marut, and Azrael; and the Lord(1)<br />
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1. Meaning "a lady and ladies" in Ecclesiastes 2:8<br />
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changed the names of the two when they fell into sin, as he changed the name of the Devil, which was AzaziI. And God placed in their heart the same fleshly lust as in the sons of Adam; and sending them down to the earth, bade them to rule righteously amongst mankind, to avoid idolatry, not to kill but for a just cause, and to keep free from fornication and strong drink. Now when Azrael felt lust in his heart, he prayed the Lord to relieve him, and was taken up to heaven, and for forty years wan unable to raise his head for shame before his Maker. But the other two remained steadfast, judging the people during the day, and when night came ascending to the heavens, worshipping the name of the Almighty. Catada tells us that before a month had passed they fell into temptation; for Zohra. one of the most beautiful of women (whom Aly tells us was queen of a city in Persia), had a suit before them, and when they saw her they fell in love with her, and sought to have her, but she refused and went away. The second day she came again, and they did the same; but she said, Nay, unless ye worship what I worship, and bow down to this idol, or kill a soul, or drink wine. They replied, It is impossible for us to do these things, which God hath forbidden; and she departed. The third day again she came holdIng a cup of wine, and her heart inclined towards them; so when they desired her, she said the same as yesterday, but they replied, To pray to other than God is a serious thing, and so is the killing of anyone; the easiest of the three is to drink wine: so they drank the wine, and becoming intoxicated Fell upon her and committed adultery: and one saw it, and they slew him. And it is said that they worshipped an idol, and the Lord changed Zohra into a star. Aly and others tell us that she said, Come not near me till you teach me that by which ye can ascend to the heavens They said, We ascend by the name of the great God. Again she said, Come not near me till ye teach me what that is. So they taught her; and forthwith she, repeating it, ascended to the skies, and the Lord changed her Into a star.<br />
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Turning now to the Jews, the same account is given In two or three places of the Talmud, especially in this extract from the Midrash Yalkut: (Capp 44)<br />
<br />
:Rabbi Joseph being asked by his disciples about Azael, told them as follows:-- After the Flood, idolatrous worship prevailing, the Holy One Was angry. Then two angels, Shamhazai and Azael arose and addressing him Said, O Lord of the Universe, when thou createdst the world, did we not say to thee, What is man that thou art mindful of him? and now we are anxious about him. The Lord replied: I well know that if ye be sent to rule over the earth, your evil passions will have possession of you, and ye will become tyrants over mankind. They answered: If thou wilt give us leave, and we shall dwell amongst them, thou shalt see in what wise we shall sanctify thy name. Go then, he said, and dwell amongst them.<br />
<br />
Soon after, Shamhazai saw a beautiful maiden called Esther, and turning his eyes upon her to come and be with him, she said, I cannot surrender myself to thee until thou teach me that great name by which thou canst ascend to the heavens above. He told her, and she having spoken it, ascended upwards undefiled. ~Then said the Holy One, -- Since she hath kept herself clear from defilement, she shall be raised aloft amid the Seven Stars, there to give praise unto the Lord. Forthwith the two went forth and consorted with the beautiful daughters of men, and children were born unto them. And Azael adorned the women he was inclined to with all kinds of beautiful ornaments.<br />
<br />
(Azrael is the same as in the Talmud is called Azael)<br />
<br />
Now anyone comparing the two stories together, must see that they agree, excepting that in the Moslem one the angels are called Harut and Marut, and in the Jewish, Shamhazai and Azael. But if we search whence the names in the Koran and Tradition came, it will be seen that Harut and Marut were two idols worshipped far back in Armenia. For in writers of that country they are so spoken of, as in the following passage from one of them:<br />
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Certainly Horot and Morot, tutelary deities of mount Ararat, and Aminabegh, and perhaps others now not known, were Assistants to the female goddess Aspandaramlt. These aidedher, and were excellent on the earth.<br />
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In this extract, Aspandaramlt is the name of the goddess worshipped of old in Iran also; for we are told that the Zoroastrians regarded her as the Spirit of the Earth, and held that all the good products of the earth arise from her. Aminabegh also was held by the Armenians to be the god of vineyards, and they named Horot and Morot the assistants of the Spirit of the Earth, seeing that they held them as spirits who had control over the wind so as to make it bring rain. They sat on the top of the lofty mountain Ararat, and sent down showers that fertilized the earth; the two were thus rulers of the wind. <br />
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1 The Armenians, - fancying that Morot came from Mor, genitive of Mair, "Mother," - formed Horot in the same way from Hair, "Father." <br />
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When also it is said that the two angels came down to propagate mankind, the meaning is that they caused the earth to bring forth its produce for that end. Zohra in Hebrew reads as Ishtar or Esther, the same as of old was worshipped in Babylon and Syria as the goddess over the birth of children and promoter of passion and desire. In proof of all this, we find in the ruins between the Tigris and Euphrates the name Ishtar on the primeval tiles. The story of one Gilgamlsh, with whom Ishtar fell in love but was rejected, has been decyphered in ancient Babylonian character upon these tiles. Ishtar came to him having the crown upon her head and asked him to kiss her, and with many loving words and gifts to be her husband, when he would in her Palace have a quiet and happy life. Gilgamish in derision rejected her offer, whereupon she ascended to the sky and appeared before the God of the heavens.(3) It is remarkable that the idolators of Babylon are shown in this primeval story to have held that Ishtar, that is Zohra, ascended on high, - exactly as is told us in Moslem tradition, as also in the Jewish commentaries.<br />
<br />
Now if we search for the Source of the above tale, we shall no doubt find it in what the Talmud says of the angels associating with women, in its commentary on the two verses in Genesis quoted below.1. Speaking of the second verse, a Jewish commentator gives us the following interpretation: - "It was Shamhazai and Uzziel who in those days came down from heaven." Hence we see that the whole imaginative tale has come out of the mistake of this and other ignorant commentators. For the word giant, as shown below, was misconstrued by them to signify not those who tyrannically "fell" on the poor people around them, but angels who "came down, or fell, from heaven."(4) And this unhappy mistake has led to the spread of the strange idol-worship just narrated. Nor was there any apparent reason for the mistake; since in the Targum we find the name (Nefilim) explained in its right and natural sense as "giants." But by and by the Jews came to love the wild tales that spread abroad; and so in a counterfeit book ascribed to Enoch, we are told that 200 angels under Samyaza (i.e. Shamhazai) came down from the heavens to commit adultery on the earth, as we read:-<br />
<br />
The angels of heaven having seen the daughters of men, fell in love with them, and said to one another, Let us take for ourselves these women, the daughters of mankind, and beget children for ourselves. And Samyaza, who was their chief, said....Azaziel taught men to make swords, daggers, and shields, and taught them to wear breastplates. And for the women they made ornaments of kinds, bracelets, jewels, collyrium to beautify their eyelids, lovely stones of great pice, dresses of beautiful colours, and current money.<br />
<br />
Let it be remembered also that we have mention of this in the Koran:- Men learned from these two (Harut and Marut) that by which to cause a division between a man and his wife; but they did not injure any one thereby excepting by leave of God; and they learned that which would hurt them and not profit them. (Surah 2:96) This is similar to what we have seen above in the Midrash Yalkut, where we are told that Azael<br />
<br />
1. The origin of the name is traced still fllrther East to the ancient Sanskrit wind-gods the Maruls.<br />
<br />
2 The original Babylonish text is here given, as indeed the Author does in most of the Oriental quotations. A close translation is also given, but only the general purport is here attempted.<br />
<br />
3. Genesis 6:2-4 "The sons of God saw the daughters of men that they were fair, and took them wives of all which they chose...There were giants in those days,...when the sons of God came in unto the daughters of men, and they bare children unto them, the same became mighty men which were of old, men of renown." The "sons of God," according to our Author, mean righteous men of the seed of Seth. The Commentator quoted is Jonathan son of Uzziel.There is a Sanskrit story of the similar ascent of two angels, and a Houry like Zohra, from which the Armenians may possibly have taken their tale; and from this idolatrous source the Jews no doubt received it; and from them, the Moslems. <br />
<br />
4 The term is Nefilim, i.e. persons who fell upon the helplessaround them and committed violence and oppression on the earth.<br />
<br />
embellished the daughters of men with ornaments to make them lovely and attractive.<br />
<br />
But enough has been said to show that the story of Harut and Marut, as we find it in the Coran and Moslem books, has been derived from Jewish sources.<br />
<br />
===Sinai overhead===<br />
<br />
A few other things taken by Islam from the Jews. - If time permitted, we could easily tell of many other narratives in the Koran, not in our Scriptures but taken from foolish tales of the Jews, about Joseph, David, Saul, etc-.; but space will not permit, excepting for a few. Here, for example, is the account of "Sinai overhead" as we have it in Surah 7. 172: And when we raised the mountain over them, as though it had been a canopy, and they imagined that it was falling upon them, (we said) Receive that which we have sent unto you with reverence, and remember that which is therein, if may be that ye take heed; and we have two other passages (vv. 60 and 87) in Surah Bekr to the same effect; -- the meaning being that when the Jews held back from accepting the Torah, the Lord lifted Mount Sinai over their heads to force their reception of it. The same tale is given by a Hebrew writer thus: "I raised the mount to be a covering over you, as it were a lid."1. It need hardly be said that there is nothing of the kind in the Torah. The tale, however, may have arisen (Exodus 32:19) from the fact that when Moses returning from Mount Sinai, saw his people worshipping the calf, "his anger waxed hot and he cast the tables (of the Law) out of his hands, and brake them beneath the mount." The words "beneath the mount," simply mean that he cast the tables down at the foot of Mount Sinai. And hence all this wild fiction of the mountain being lifted over their heads! We can only compare it to a like Hindoo tale of a mountain similarly lifted over the people's heads, very much resembling what we have in the Koran.<br />
<br />
===Golden Calf which came out of the fire===<br />
<br />
Here are one or two other tales of Moses in the wilderness; and first, that of the Golden Calf which came out of the fire kindled by the people at Sinai. The Koran tells us that Sameri also cast (what he had into the fire) and brought out unto them a bodily calf which lowed.(Surah 20:9) The origin of this fiction we find in a Jewish writer.(2) as follows: "The calf having cried aloud, came forth, and the children of Israel saw it. Rabbi Yahuda says that Sammael from the inside of it made the cry of the calf in order to lead the Israelites astray." No doubt the Prophet in this matter got his information from the Jews; strange that he should have been led to adopt this baseless tale. But he has used the wrong name Al Sameri. The name of the people, of course, occurs often in the Bible, and the Jews regarded the Samaritans as their enemies; but as the city of Samaria did not arise till some four hundred years after Moses, it is difficult to imagine how it came to be entered in this story.3. We also note that in this matter the Koran is in opposition to the Torah, which tells us that Aaron was the person who for fear of the Israelites around him, had the molten calf set up. Another story, given us twice in the Koran, (Surah 2:28, Surah 4:152) is that when the Israelites insisted on seeing the Lord, they were punished by death, but eventually restored to life again; and to add to the foolish tale we are told that it was the Torah which appealed for help and thus obtained their revival.<br />
<br />
===Chaldaean and Syrian words===<br />
<br />
A few other Jewish matters. - In the Koran are a number of Chaldaean and Syrian words which the Moslems have been unable rightly to explain, find it written of the Genii that "they listened behind the curtain" in order to gain knowledge of things to come.<br />
<br />
In Surah 1. 29, we read:- On the day we shall say unto hell, Art thou full? and ii shall reply, Is there yet any more? Similarly in a Jewish author:-- "The Prince of Hell shall say, day by day, (;ive me food that I may be full."<br />
<br />
In Surahs 11. 42 and 23. 27, it is said of the Flood, The oven boiled over; and in a Jewish work we have this: "The people of the Flood were punished with boiling water." These similarities are interesting as showing the close connection between the Koran and Jewish remarks; but enough has been given of them.<br />
1. From the Jewish story in the Abodah Sarah.2 Pirke Rabbi Eleazer.3. No. doubt the Prophet thought that the Jews said Sameri (Samaritan) when they said Sammael. They regarded Sammael as the angel of death.<br />
<br />
===Religious usage’s of Islam taken from the Jews===<br />
<br />
There are many such, but it will suffice to mention two or three. We have seen that keeping the fast of Ramadan has been taken from the Sabaeans and not the Jews, still there is one point certainly coming from the latter, and that regards eating and drinking at night during the month. In Surah 2. 83, we read: Eat and drink until ye can distinguish a white thread from a black thread by the day-break, then fulfil the fast. In a Jewish book (Mishnah Berakhoth) we find it similarly laid down that "the beginning of the day is at the moment when one can but distinguish a blue thread from a white thread," - a striking coincidence.<br />
<br />
Again, Moslems of all lands, at the fixed time of their five prayers, wherever they happen to be, whether in the house or in the street, perform their devotions on the spot, - especially at places where people are passing by. This strange practice is entirely confined to them, and would be seemly In no other religion. But in the days of the Prophet there were Jews in Arabia who used this habit; for many of them were descended from the Pharisees, of whom our Savior said:- "They love to pray standing in the synagogues and in the corners of the streets, that they may be seen of men." (Matt. 6:5) Thus the Companions of Mohammed looking upon the Jews as the People of the Book and children of father Abraham, regarded such practices as having descended from him, and so adopted, and have continued them to the present day, as we see, unchanged, though they are no longer kept up by the Jews themselves.<br />
<br />
Does it not seem strange to the Reader, that although the Koran repeatedly attests our Scriptures as the Word of God, yet but one quotation is taken from them; viz. Surah 21. 105, - Verily we have written in the Psalms after the mention (of the Law) that my servants the righteous shall inherit the earth; an evident reference to Psalm 37. 11; - "But the meek shall inherit the earth ."<br />
<br />
Two other matters borrowed from the Jews. Every Moslem thinks the Koran to have been on the heavenly Table (Lauh) from before the creation of the world, as is mentioned in a passage already quoted:- Truly it is the glorious Koran, on a preserved Table. (Surah 85:21,22) Now before saying anything about this Table, one may ask, was the Book of the Psalms in existence before the Koran or not? For we have given above a verse in which is revealed the inheritance given by the Lord to his servants, as mentioned in the Psalms before the Koran was revealed. The Koran quotes from the Psalms: is it not clear, therefore, that the Psalms were before the Koran? How then could the Koran, produced so late in the world, have been placed on the heavenly Table?<br />
<br />
Now let us hear what Tradition tells us about this Table:-<br />
<br />
One tells us that the Throne is made out of a pearl, as is also the Preserved Table, the height of which is 700 years' journey, and its breadth 300. All around it is adorned with rubies. The Lord commanded that there should be written upon it what he had wrought in Creation, and onwards till the Day of Judgment:-- "In the name of the Lord, the Compassionate and Merciful. I am God and there is none else beside me. He that accepts my decree, is patient at my punishment, and thankful at my mercies, I will write and place him along with the righteous; he that doth not accept my decree, let him go forth from beneath my heaven," etc.' (Quissas al Anbia)<br />
<br />
The Source of this tale is to be found in Jewish books, but vastly exaggerated by the Moslems. We find in the Torah that when God desired to give forth the Ten commandments, he thus addressed Moses, who has himself given the account in Deut. 10:1-5<br />
<br />
At that time the Lord said unto me, Hew thee two tables of stone like unto the first, and come up unto me into the mount, and make thee an ark of wood. And I will write on the tables the words that were in the first tables which thou brakest, and thou shalt put them in the ark. And I made an ark of shittim wood, and hewed two tables of stone like unto the first, and went up into the mount, having the two tables in mine hand. And he wrote on the tables, according to the first writing, the ten commandments, which the Lord spake unto you in the mount our of the midst of the fire in the day of the assembly: and the Lord gave them unto me. And I turned myself and came down from the mount, and put the tables in the ark which had made; and there they be, as the Lord commanded me.<br />
<br />
Elsewhere also we are told that the two Tables were preserved in the Ark of the Covenant, made by Moses at the Lord's command.' (Exodus 24:12, I Kings 8:9 Hebrews 9:3,4) But in course of time the Jews imagined that all the books of the Old Testament, nay the Talmud itself, were deposited in the Ark on the Tables, Mohammed hearing this of the Jewish Law and Scriptures, imagined the same of his own, and said (as we are told above) that the Koran also was placed on the Preserved Table; and his followers not understanding of what heavenly Table he spoke, swelled out the whole matter into the story given above. The following is from a Jewish writer, Rabbi Simeon:-<br />
<br />
What is that which is written that the Lord said to Moses: Come up to me into the mount, and be there; and I will give thee tables of stone, and a law, and commandments which I have written; that thou mayest teach them (Exodus 24:12) The tables are the Ten Commandments; and the Torah the Law which is read; and the Commandments also mean the Mishnah; and "that which I have written" means the Prophets, and the Holy Writings; and "that thou mayest teach them" points to the Gemara. And from this we learn that all these were delivered to Moses on Mount Sinai.<br />
<br />
No intelligent Moslem would for a moment credit this foolish story, knowing that the Mishna was not written till about the year 220 of the Christian era; the Gemara of Jerusalem in 430 A.D.; and the Gemara of Babylon about 530 A.D. But ignorant Moslems believing it all, added their own Koran to the rest, and so comes this wretched story. The Reader will not think it necessary, we are sure, that anything more of the above kind be added, excepting this, perhaps, that the Jews themselves hold the Tables to be of date beyond time; for one tells us they were made "at the creation of the world at the sunset before the Sabbath day."(Pirke Aboth, v. 6)<br />
<br />
===The Mount Calf===<br />
<br />
The origin of what the Moslems tell us about this mountain clearly originated from the Jews. Here is what the Tradition of the Moslems tell us:(2) (Araish al Majalis)<br />
<br />
:The Lord Almighty formed a great mountain from green chrysolite, - the greenness of the sky is from it, -- called Mount calf and surrounded the entire earth therewith, and it is that by which the Almighty swore, and called it Calf (see Surah 1.1).<br />
<br />
And again:-<br />
<br />
:One day Abdallah asked the Prophet what formed the highest point of the earth. "Mount Calf," he said. "And what is Mount Calf made of?" "Of green emeralds," was the reply; "and from hence is the greenness of the sky." "Thou hast said the truth, O Prophet; and what is the height of Mount Calf?" "A journey of five hundred years.~~ "And round about it how far is it?" "Two thousand years' journey."<br />
<br />
Now all these strange ideas are founded on the Jewish writing called Hagigah, where we meet with the following comment on the word thohu in Genesis 1:2 "Thohh is a green line (Cav or Calf which surrounds the whole world, and hence comes darkness." And so the Companions of the Prophet hearing this explanation of the word Cav, and not understanding what was meant, fancied it must be a mountain, or succession of great mountains, surrounding the world and making it dark. From all that has now been said, it must be clear tothe Reader that the Jewish writings, and specially the fanciful tales of the Talmud, formed one of the chief Sources of Islam. And now we must turn our attention to the similar influence on Islam exercised by the Christian religion, and especially by those foolishstories which in the Prophet's day the heretical sects, with their forged and got-up tales, spread abroad.<br />
<br />
==See Also==<br />
*[http://answering-islam.org.uk/Books/Tisdall/Sources/index.htm Full online book: The original sources of the Qu'ran]<br />
*[http://answering-islam.org.uk/Books/Tisdall/Sources0/index.htm Full online book:The Sources of Islam]<br />
*[http://answering-islam.org.uk/Books/Tisdall/WW/index.htm Full online book:A word to the wise]<br />
*[http://answering-islam.org.uk/Books/Tisdall/Objections/index.htm Full online book:A Manual of the Leading Muhammadan Objections to Christianity]<br />
*[http://answering-islam.org.uk/Books/Tisdall/thebook.htm The book of the "People of the Book"]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references /></div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=How_to_become_a_Noahite&diff=3967How to become a Noahite2007-03-15T22:34:20Z<p>HaNoahide: /* Are You a Noahide Already? */</p>
<hr />
<div>In the Talmud, and codified by Maimonides, it is written that it is not sufficient for a non-Jew to just keep the seven laws in order to "have a portion in the world to come".<br />
<br />
As Maimonides says:<br />
:Everyone who accepts the seven commandments and is careful to perform them – this person is of the ''Chasidei Umos HaOlam'', and he has a portion in the world to come. He accepts them and performs them because they were commanded by the ''Kodosh Baruch Hu'' revealed to us by the hand of ''Moshe Rabbenu'' that the ''Bnei Noah'' were previously commanded in these things.<ref>Mishne Torah: Laws of Kings 8:11</ref><br />
<br />
He also says:<br />
:One who accepts these [basic laws] is called: Ger Toshav in every place, and he must accept [these laws] on himself in front of three judges. And all who have taken upon themselves to circumcise, and twelve months have past without circumcision – this person becomes like other nations [who have not accepted the Noahide laws].<ref>Mishne Torah: Laws of Kings 8:10</ref><br />
<br />
A translation of Maimonides may be found [[Maimonides' Law of Noahides#Laws of Kings and their Wars' Chapter 8|here]]. (Please remember when reading other laws of Maimonides that he is only one authority, and other great Rabbis have given their opinions. Not all of Maimonides opinions have been accepted as ''halacha'').<br />
<br />
==Are You a Noahide Already?==<br />
<br />
All of humanity are 'children of Noah' by definition, so the question is really "are you an observant Noahide?" (i.e. one who is promised a share in the world to come). <br />
<br />
One answer is that many religions and legal systems come very close to qualifying as living up to the Noahide standard, but fall short on a few areas. So by supplementing or reforming an existing faith, one may live up to the Noahide requirements. Some Rabbis are of the opinion that reforming and correcting existing national faiths is the highest form of Noahide.<ref>Rabbi Yosef Gikkitila, Rabbi Nathaniel ibn Fayumi, Rabbi Ovadiah Seforno, Rabbi Menachem Meiri, Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, Rabbi Yaakov Emden, Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes, Rabbi Israel Lipschutz, Rabbi Elijah Benamozegh, Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, Rabbi Jonathan Sacks, Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz</ref> For example Aime Palliere, a Noahide taught by Rabbi [[Elijah Benamozegh]], remained a Roman Catholic and continued going to church (albeit with a modifed intepretation).<ref>"The Unknown Sanctuary" by Aime Palliere.</ref><br />
<br />
Alternatively, another approach is to join one of the many communities of Noahides worldwide. These communities are best for people who have fallen out with establish religion and wish to take on some of the Jewish customs. Some Rabbis are of the opinion existing religions are beyond repair, or that Noahides are forbidden from creating a religion. They feel that taking on a voluntary set of customs, untainted by idolatry, is the highest form of Noahide.<ref>Rabbi Shlomo ben Yitzhak (Rashi), Maimonides, Rabbi Yehudah ben Betzalel Loewe (Maharal), Rabbi Isaac Luria, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Chabad), Rabbi Zevi Yehudah Kook, Rabbi Yoel Schwartz</ref><br />
<br />
==How to become a Noahide==<br />
<br />
To become an observant Noahide is to be assured of a 'portion in the world to come' by entering into a covenant with G-d, of which the Jewish people are also a part. It is to enter into a recognized relationship with the Jewish people, rather being completely outside of any legal system recognized by Judaism. <br />
<br />
The requirements are generally considered:<br />
# To recognize the covenant that already has been made<br />
# To become part of one of 'seventy' legal systems<br />
# And to accept the Rabbinic interpretation of scripture<ref>Some rabbinic authorities disagree that this is a requirement</ref><br />
<br />
Once one makes this step, the 'size' of one's portion in the world to come is determined by prayer, repentance, good deeds and good character. This may sound very similar to the teaching of other religions, particularly within the Abrahamic tradition, and it should be so. Judaism teaches that the Noahide covenant is the foundation of any proper society and religion.<br />
<br />
According to Rabbinic tradition, the best way to mark the decision to become a part of the Noahide Covenant is to make a declaration.<ref>Maimonides holds that the declaration is only required for a Ger Toshav. He holds that Ger Toshav only applies to those who live in Israel under a sovereign Jewish (Torah) State, others disagree. According to many authorities, there is value to the declaration of a person before a rabbinical court even outside of Israel.</ref><br />
<br />
==The Noahide Declaration==<br />
<br />
A Noahide declaration should include these points.<br />
<br />
To be a ''Chasidei Umos HaOlam'', Righteous Gentile:<br />
# Accept the seven commandments<br />
# Be careful to perform them (that is in all their subdivisions and details, including ''dinim'' - the laws of the courts)<br />
# Because they were commanded by G-d<br />
# Revealed to us by the hand of Moshe Rabbenu (through Rabbinic tradition)<br />
# Were previously commanded in these things (reconnecting with the previous ancient law & covenant)<br />
<br />
To be a ''Ger Toshav'', Partial Convert<br />
# He must accept [these laws] on himself in front of three judges.<br />
# This is in "every place", which I believe means local judges anywhere in the world.<br />
<br />
One must remember that unlike 'conversion' to Christianity or Islam, the Noahide declaration is not a conversion process. It is not marked with some right of passage, nor with some interrogation of proper dogma or belief.<br />
<br />
Rather it is a declaration of intent to uphold the seven laws and their details, to become part of the jurisdiction of his/her nation's Noahide courts, and acceptance of the authority of Rabbinic tradition in these matters.<br />
<br />
==Becoming a Noahide or Converting to Judaism==<br />
<br />
As far as becoming an observant Noahide or converting to Judaism goes, these are two very different paths. Besides the obvious differences, there is the question of legal jurisdiction. A convert intends to be under the complete authority of the Jewish court of law as interpreted by the Jewish court system. A Noahide must place himself under the authority of his nations' Noahide courts, and be a good national. Just as a convert should seek the welfare of the Jewish nation (as Ruth said "your people will be my people..."), a Noahide should seek the welfare of his nation. In the Talmud (Bava Kama 38a), it is written that like the Jews, the Noahide nations have also been sent into exile because they didn't keep their part of the covenant. Some understand this to mean that they must find themselves and who they are. Like the Jews, they too have a mission and purpose in this world.<br />
<br />
==Which 'Nation' do you belong to?==<br />
<br />
There are those that claim that it is important that a Noahide declares the court system he/she is following, in addition to his pledge of upholding the seven laws. This is because it is impossible to uphold the [[Imperative of Legal System]] without belonging to a legal system.<br />
<br />
Rabbi [[Yaakov Anatoli]] (1194-1256) in ''HaMelamed'' put it this way:<br />
<br />
:When the Noahites were enjoined concerning Justice, they were put under obligation to create legal arrangements .... It is incumbent on the judges to draw up rules of equity that shall be appropriate for that particular country, as exemplified by the manner in which this matter is handled currently by the nations, severally. Likewise, it is incumbent upon merchants and upon the members of the trades to establish regulations for themselves... and whatever emerges as the law in this manner is law, as much as that which is written in the Bible. Furthermore, anyone violating this law violates Scripture, because Scripture commands the individual to accept the decisions of the contemporary jurists. The dictum, "The law of the land is the Law," relates to this concept.<ref>Quoted by Reuben Margolioth, Margolioth Hayarn. Jerusalem: Mosad Harav Kook, 1958, volume 11, page 20. (Sanhedrin 56b, section 9.)</ref><br />
<br />
==Finding a Rabbinical Court==<br />
<br />
Have you contacted Chabad in your area? They are usually open to Noahide issues.<br />
<br />
Is it possible for you to travel to Jerusalem to meet with the [[Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah]]?<br />
<br />
Is it possible to assemble a [[Rabbinical Court|Beis Din]] of observant Jews in your area to listen to your declaration?<br />
<br />
==Registering==<br />
<br />
There are some rabbinic opinions that one must observe the [[Seven Laws]] as a binding legal requirement. For Noahides in the United States, one way to do this is to register with the the [[United Noachide Council, Inc.|United Noachide Council]]. The UNC functions as a complementary court system to the United States court system, and is registered to handle certain legal cases. The intention is to allow a Noahide to fulfill the Noahide Covenant and ''in all your ways know G-d''(Proverbs 3:6). The idea being that even something as simple as stopping for a red traffic light, when done with the correct intention, can be a ''mitvah'' with spiritual reward.<br />
<br />
Please fill out the following information and send it to the UNC:<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
<br />
The UNC is working in other countries to set up complementary court systems, to make up for the lack where those countries legal systems have fallen short of the basic requirements for the proper functioning of society and religion.<br />
<br />
==References ==<br />
<references /></div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=How_to_become_a_Noahite&diff=3966How to become a Noahite2007-03-15T22:32:28Z<p>HaNoahide: </p>
<hr />
<div>In the Talmud, and codified by Maimonides, it is written that it is not sufficient for a non-Jew to just keep the seven laws in order to "have a portion in the world to come".<br />
<br />
As Maimonides says:<br />
:Everyone who accepts the seven commandments and is careful to perform them – this person is of the ''Chasidei Umos HaOlam'', and he has a portion in the world to come. He accepts them and performs them because they were commanded by the ''Kodosh Baruch Hu'' revealed to us by the hand of ''Moshe Rabbenu'' that the ''Bnei Noah'' were previously commanded in these things.<ref>Mishne Torah: Laws of Kings 8:11</ref><br />
<br />
He also says:<br />
:One who accepts these [basic laws] is called: Ger Toshav in every place, and he must accept [these laws] on himself in front of three judges. And all who have taken upon themselves to circumcise, and twelve months have past without circumcision – this person becomes like other nations [who have not accepted the Noahide laws].<ref>Mishne Torah: Laws of Kings 8:10</ref><br />
<br />
A translation of Maimonides may be found [[Maimonides' Law of Noahides#Laws of Kings and their Wars' Chapter 8|here]]. (Please remember when reading other laws of Maimonides that he is only one authority, and other great Rabbis have given their opinions. Not all of Maimonides opinions have been accepted as ''halacha'').<br />
<br />
==Are You a Noahide Already?==<br />
<br />
All of humanity are 'children of Noah' by definition, so the question is really "are you an observant Noahide?" (i.e. one who is promised a share in the world to come). <br />
<br />
One answer is that many religions and legal systems come very close to qualifying as living up to the Noahide standard, but fall short on a few areas. So by supplementing or reforming an existing faith, one may live up to the Noahide requirements. Some Rabbis are of the opinion that reforming and correcting existing national faiths is the highest form of Noahide.<ref>Rabbi Yosef Gikkitila, Rabbi Nathaniel ibn Fayumi, Rabbi Ovadiah Seforno, Rabbi Menachem Meiri, Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, Rabbi Yaakov Emden, Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes, Rabbi Israel Lipschutz, Rabbi Elijah Benamozegh, Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, Rabbi Jonathan Sacks, Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz</ref> For example Aime Palliere, a Noahide taught by Rabbi [[Elijah Benamozegh]] remained a Roman Catholic and continued going to church (albeit with a modifed intepretation).<ref>"The Unknown Sanctuary" by Aime Palliere.</ref><br />
<br />
Alternatively, another approach is join with one of the many communities of Noahides worldwide. These communities are best for people who have fallen out with establish religion and wish to take on some of the Jewish customs. Some Rabbis are of the opinion existing religions are beyond repair, or that Noahides are forbidden from creating a religion. They feel that taking on a voluntary set of customs, untainted by idolatry, is the highest form of Noahide.<ref>Rabbi Shlomo ben Yitzhak (Rashi), Maimonides, Rabbi Yehudah ben Betzalel Loewe (Maharal), Rabbi Isaac Luria, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Chabad), Rabbi Zevi Yehudah Kook, Rabbi Yoel Schwartz</ref><br />
<br />
==How to become a Noahide==<br />
<br />
To become an observant Noahide is to be assured of a 'portion in the world to come' by entering into a covenant with G-d, of which the Jewish people are also a part. It is to enter into a recognized relationship with the Jewish people, rather being completely outside of any legal system recognized by Judaism. <br />
<br />
The requirements are generally considered:<br />
# To recognize the covenant that already has been made<br />
# To become part of one of 'seventy' legal systems<br />
# And to accept the Rabbinic interpretation of scripture<ref>Some rabbinic authorities disagree that this is a requirement</ref><br />
<br />
Once one makes this step, the 'size' of one's portion in the world to come is determined by prayer, repentance, good deeds and good character. This may sound very similar to the teaching of other religions, particularly within the Abrahamic tradition, and it should be so. Judaism teaches that the Noahide covenant is the foundation of any proper society and religion.<br />
<br />
According to Rabbinic tradition, the best way to mark the decision to become a part of the Noahide Covenant is to make a declaration.<ref>Maimonides holds that the declaration is only required for a Ger Toshav. He holds that Ger Toshav only applies to those who live in Israel under a sovereign Jewish (Torah) State, others disagree. According to many authorities, there is value to the declaration of a person before a rabbinical court even outside of Israel.</ref><br />
<br />
==The Noahide Declaration==<br />
<br />
A Noahide declaration should include these points.<br />
<br />
To be a ''Chasidei Umos HaOlam'', Righteous Gentile:<br />
# Accept the seven commandments<br />
# Be careful to perform them (that is in all their subdivisions and details, including ''dinim'' - the laws of the courts)<br />
# Because they were commanded by G-d<br />
# Revealed to us by the hand of Moshe Rabbenu (through Rabbinic tradition)<br />
# Were previously commanded in these things (reconnecting with the previous ancient law & covenant)<br />
<br />
To be a ''Ger Toshav'', Partial Convert<br />
# He must accept [these laws] on himself in front of three judges.<br />
# This is in "every place", which I believe means local judges anywhere in the world.<br />
<br />
One must remember that unlike 'conversion' to Christianity or Islam, the Noahide declaration is not a conversion process. It is not marked with some right of passage, nor with some interrogation of proper dogma or belief.<br />
<br />
Rather it is a declaration of intent to uphold the seven laws and their details, to become part of the jurisdiction of his/her nation's Noahide courts, and acceptance of the authority of Rabbinic tradition in these matters.<br />
<br />
==Becoming a Noahide or Converting to Judaism==<br />
<br />
As far as becoming an observant Noahide or converting to Judaism goes, these are two very different paths. Besides the obvious differences, there is the question of legal jurisdiction. A convert intends to be under the complete authority of the Jewish court of law as interpreted by the Jewish court system. A Noahide must place himself under the authority of his nations' Noahide courts, and be a good national. Just as a convert should seek the welfare of the Jewish nation (as Ruth said "your people will be my people..."), a Noahide should seek the welfare of his nation. In the Talmud (Bava Kama 38a), it is written that like the Jews, the Noahide nations have also been sent into exile because they didn't keep their part of the covenant. Some understand this to mean that they must find themselves and who they are. Like the Jews, they too have a mission and purpose in this world.<br />
<br />
==Which 'Nation' do you belong to?==<br />
<br />
There are those that claim that it is important that a Noahide declares the court system he/she is following, in addition to his pledge of upholding the seven laws. This is because it is impossible to uphold the [[Imperative of Legal System]] without belonging to a legal system.<br />
<br />
Rabbi [[Yaakov Anatoli]] (1194-1256) in ''HaMelamed'' put it this way:<br />
<br />
:When the Noahites were enjoined concerning Justice, they were put under obligation to create legal arrangements .... It is incumbent on the judges to draw up rules of equity that shall be appropriate for that particular country, as exemplified by the manner in which this matter is handled currently by the nations, severally. Likewise, it is incumbent upon merchants and upon the members of the trades to establish regulations for themselves... and whatever emerges as the law in this manner is law, as much as that which is written in the Bible. Furthermore, anyone violating this law violates Scripture, because Scripture commands the individual to accept the decisions of the contemporary jurists. The dictum, "The law of the land is the Law," relates to this concept.<ref>Quoted by Reuben Margolioth, Margolioth Hayarn. Jerusalem: Mosad Harav Kook, 1958, volume 11, page 20. (Sanhedrin 56b, section 9.)</ref><br />
<br />
==Finding a Rabbinical Court==<br />
<br />
Have you contacted Chabad in your area? They are usually open to Noahide issues.<br />
<br />
Is it possible for you to travel to Jerusalem to meet with the [[Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah]]?<br />
<br />
Is it possible to assemble a [[Rabbinical Court|Beis Din]] of observant Jews in your area to listen to your declaration?<br />
<br />
==Registering==<br />
<br />
There are some rabbinic opinions that one must observe the [[Seven Laws]] as a binding legal requirement. For Noahides in the United States, one way to do this is to register with the the [[United Noachide Council, Inc.|United Noachide Council]]. The UNC functions as a complementary court system to the United States court system, and is registered to handle certain legal cases. The intention is to allow a Noahide to fulfill the Noahide Covenant and ''in all your ways know G-d''(Proverbs 3:6). The idea being that even something as simple as stopping for a red traffic light, when done with the correct intention, can be a ''mitvah'' with spiritual reward.<br />
<br />
Please fill out the following information and send it to the UNC:<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
<br />
The UNC is working in other countries to set up complementary court systems, to make up for the lack where those countries legal systems have fallen short of the basic requirements for the proper functioning of society and religion.<br />
<br />
==References ==<br />
<references /></div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=Talk:How_to_become_a_Noahite&diff=3965Talk:How to become a Noahite2007-03-15T22:30:32Z<p>HaNoahide: /* comments by Daniel Aharon */</p>
<hr />
<div>This is a discussion page for comments on the current page.<br />
* Press the "+" button above to add a comment to the end of the page.<br />
* Press the "signature" button (second from right) to end of your comment (it will add four tildes ~ )<br />
--[[User:HaNoahide|HaNoahide]] 08:24, 15 March 2007 (EDT)<br />
<br />
== comments by Daniel Aharon ==<br />
<br />
- in The Noahide Declaration:<br />
* Could be usefull a link to explane the "dinim - the laws of the courts"<br />
<br />
- about:<br />
"Is it possible to assemble a Beis Din of observant Jews in your area to listen to your declaration?<br />
* who assemble a Beis Din of observant Jews?<br />
* who declare a Beis Din "official" to accept Noahide declaration?<br />
* Can the Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah help to find a Beis Din in local areas of the world?<br />
<br />
:I hope that "dinim" will be explained at this page [[Imperative of Legal System]], but it will take a while. Usually a rabbinical court means a standing court who judges who have been trained and are qualified to make rulings, and generally functions as a rabbinical court other matters too. However, the minimum requirement for a rabbinical court is any three observant Jews. I don't think the Jerusalem Court has the resources or connections to find Beis Din's in local areas of the world, but once a Beis Din is located perhaps the Jerusalem Court could write letters explaining what the Bnei Noach movement is. --[[User:HaNoahide|HaNoahide]] 18:30, 15 March 2007 (EDT)</div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=How_to_become_a_Noahite&diff=3964How to become a Noahite2007-03-15T21:23:30Z<p>HaNoahide: /* Are You a Noahide Already? */</p>
<hr />
<div>The Talmud, and codified by Maimonides, it is written that it is not sufficient for a non-Jew to just keep the seven laws in order to "have a portion in the world to come".<br />
<br />
As Maimonides says:<br />
:Everyone who accepts the seven commandments and is careful to perform them – this person is of the ''Chasidei Umos HaOlam'', and he has a portion in the world to come. He accepts them and performs them because they were commanded by the ''Kodosh Baruch Hu'' revealed to us by the hand of ''Moshe Rabbenu'' that the ''Bnei Noah'' were previously commanded in these things.<ref>Mishne Torah: Laws of Kings 8:11</ref><br />
<br />
He also says:<br />
:One who accepts these [basic laws] is called: Ger Toshav in every place, and he must accept [these laws] on himself in front of three judges. And all who have taken upon themselves to circumcise, and twelve months have past without circumcision – this person becomes like other nations [who have not accepted the Noahide laws].<ref>Mishne Torah: Laws of Kings 8:10</ref><br />
<br />
A translation of Maimonides may be found [[Maimonides' Law of Noahides#Laws of Kings and their Wars' Chapter 8|here]]. (Please remember when reading other laws of Maimonides that he is only one authority, and other great Rabbis have given their opinions. Not all of Maimonides opinions have been accepted as ''halacha'').<br />
<br />
==Are You a Noahide Already?==<br />
<br />
All of humanity are 'children of Noah' by definition, so the question is really "are you an observant Noahide?" (i.e. one who is promised a share in the world to come). <br />
<br />
One answer is that many religions and legal systems come very close to qualifying as living up to the Noahide standard, but fall short on a few areas. So by supplementing or reforming an existing faith, one may live up to the Noahide requirements. Some Rabbis are of the opinion that reforming and correcting existing national faiths is the highest form of Noahide.<ref>Rabbi Yosef Gikkitila, Rabbi Nathaniel ibn Fayumi, Rabbi Ovadiah Seforno, Rabbi Menachem Meiri, Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, Rabbi Yaakov Emden, Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes, Rabbi Israel Lipschutz, Rabbi Elijah Benamozegh, Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, Rabbi Jonathan Sacks, Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz</ref> For example Aime Palliere, a Noahide taught by Rabbi [[Elijah Benamozegh]] remained a Roman Catholic and continued going to church (albeit with a modifed intepretation).<ref>"The Unknown Sanctuary" by Aime Palliere.</ref><br />
<br />
Alternatively, another approach is join with one of the many communities of Noahides worldwide. These communities are best for people who have fallen out with establish religion and wish to take on some of the Jewish customs. Some Rabbis are of the opinion existing religions are beyond repair, or that Noahides are forbidden from creating a religion. They feel that taking on a voluntary set of customs, untainted by idolatry, is the highest form of Noahide.<ref>Rabbi Shlomo ben Yitzhak (Rashi), Maimonides, Rabbi Yehudah ben Betzalel Loewe (Maharal), Rabbi Isaac Luria, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Chabad), Rabbi Zevi Yehudah Kook, Rabbi Yoel Schwartz</ref><br />
<br />
==How to become a Noahide==<br />
<br />
To become an observant Noahide is to be assured of a 'portion in the world to come' by entering into a covenant with G-d, of which the Jewish people are also a part. It is to enter into a recognized relationship with the Jewish people, rather being completely outside of any legal system recognized by Judaism. <br />
<br />
The requirements are generally considered:<br />
# To recognize the covenant that already has been made<br />
# To become part of one of 'seventy' legal systems<br />
# And to accept the Rabbinic interpretation of scripture<ref>Some rabbinic authorities disagree that this is a requirement</ref><br />
<br />
Once one makes this step, the 'size' of one's portion in the world to come is determined by prayer, repentance, good deeds and good character. This may sound very similar to the teaching of other religions, particularly within the Abrahamic tradition, and it should be so. Judaism teaches that the Noahide covenant is the foundation of any proper society and religion.<br />
<br />
According to Rabbinic tradition, the best way to mark the decision to become a part of the Noahide Covenant is to make a declaration.<ref>Maimonides holds that the declaration is only required for a Ger Toshav. He holds that Ger Toshav only applies to those who live in Israel under a sovereign Jewish (Torah) State, others disagree. According to many authorities, there is value to the declaration of a person before a rabbinical court even outside of Israel.</ref><br />
<br />
==The Noahide Declaration==<br />
<br />
A Noahide declaration should include these points.<br />
<br />
To be a ''Chasidei Umos HaOlam'', Righteous Gentile:<br />
# Accept the seven commandments<br />
# Be careful to perform them (that is in all their subdivisions and details, including ''dinim'' - the laws of the courts)<br />
# Because they were commanded by G-d<br />
# Revealed to us by the hand of Moshe Rabbenu (through Rabbinic tradition)<br />
# Were previously commanded in these things (reconnecting with the previous ancient law & covenant)<br />
<br />
To be a ''Ger Toshav'', Partial Convert<br />
# He must accept [these laws] on himself in front of three judges.<br />
# This is in "every place", which I believe means local judges anywhere in the world.<br />
<br />
One must remember that unlike 'conversion' to Christianity or Islam, the Noahide declaration is not a conversion process. It is not marked with some right of passage, nor with some interrogation of proper dogma or belief.<br />
<br />
Rather it is a declaration of intent to uphold the seven laws and their details, to become part of the jurisdiction of his/her nation's Noahide courts, and acceptance of the authority of Rabbinic tradition in these matters.<br />
<br />
==Becoming a Noahide or Converting to Judaism==<br />
<br />
As far as becoming an observant Noahide or converting to Judaism goes, these are two very different paths. Besides the obvious differences, there is the question of legal jurisdiction. A convert intends to be under the complete authority of the Jewish court of law as interpreted by the Jewish court system. A Noahide must place himself under the authority of his nations' Noahide courts, and be a good national. Just as a convert should seek the welfare of the Jewish nation (as Ruth said "your people will be my people..."), a Noahide should seek the welfare of his nation. In the Talmud (Bava Kama 38a), it is written that like the Jews, the Noahide nations have also been sent into exile because they didn't keep their part of the covenant. Some understand this to mean that they must find themselves and who they are. Like the Jews, they too have a mission and purpose in this world.<br />
<br />
==Which 'Nation' do you belong to?==<br />
<br />
There are those that claim that it is important that a Noahide declares the court system he/she is following, in addition to his pledge of upholding the seven laws. This is because it is impossible to uphold the [[Imperative of Legal System]] without belonging to a legal system.<br />
<br />
Rabbi [[Yaakov Anatoli]] (1194-1256) in ''HaMelamed'' put it this way:<br />
<br />
:When the Noahites were enjoined concerning Justice, they were put under obligation to create legal arrangements .... It is incumbent on the judges to draw up rules of equity that shall be appropriate for that particular country, as exemplified by the manner in which this matter is handled currently by the nations, severally. Likewise, it is incumbent upon merchants and upon the members of the trades to establish regulations for themselves... and whatever emerges as the law in this manner is law, as much as that which is written in the Bible. Furthermore, anyone violating this law violates Scripture, because Scripture commands the individual to accept the decisions of the contemporary jurists. The dictum, "The law of the land is the Law," relates to this concept.<ref>Quoted by Reuben Margolioth, Margolioth Hayarn. Jerusalem: Mosad Harav Kook, 1958, volume 11, page 20. (Sanhedrin 56b, section 9.)</ref><br />
<br />
==Finding a Rabbinical Court==<br />
<br />
Have you contacted Chabad in your area? They are usually open to Noahide issues.<br />
<br />
Is it possible for you to travel to Jerusalem to meet with the [[Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah]]?<br />
<br />
Is it possible to assemble a [[Rabbinical Court|Beis Din]] of observant Jews in your area to listen to your declaration?<br />
<br />
==Registering==<br />
<br />
There are some rabbinic opinions that one must observe the [[Seven Laws]] as a binding legal requirement. For Noahides in the United States, one way to do this is to register with the the [[United Noachide Council, Inc.|United Noachide Council]]. The UNC functions as a complementary court system to the United States court system, and is registered to handle certain legal cases. The intention is to allow a Noahide to fulfill the Noahide Covenant and ''in all your ways know G-d''(Proverbs 3:6). The idea being that even something as simple as stopping for a red traffic light, when done with the correct intention, can be a ''mitvah'' with spiritual reward.<br />
<br />
Please fill out the following information and send it to the UNC:<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
<br />
The UNC is working in other countries to set up complementary court systems, to make up for the lack where those countries legal systems have fallen short of the basic requirements for the proper functioning of society and religion.<br />
<br />
==References ==<br />
<references /></div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=How_to_become_a_Noahite&diff=3960How to become a Noahite2007-03-15T15:05:17Z<p>HaNoahide: /* Are You a Noahide Already? */</p>
<hr />
<div>The Talmud, and codified by Maimonides, it is written that it is not sufficient for a non-Jew to just keep the seven laws in order to "have a portion in the world to come".<br />
<br />
As Maimonides says:<br />
:Everyone who accepts the seven commandments and is careful to perform them – this person is of the ''Chasidei Umos HaOlam'', and he has a portion in the world to come. He accepts them and performs them because they were commanded by the ''Kodosh Baruch Hu'' revealed to us by the hand of ''Moshe Rabbenu'' that the ''Bnei Noah'' were previously commanded in these things.<ref>Mishne Torah: Laws of Kings 8:11</ref><br />
<br />
He also says:<br />
:One who accepts these [basic laws] is called: Ger Toshav in every place, and he must accept [these laws] on himself in front of three judges. And all who have taken upon themselves to circumcise, and twelve months have past without circumcision – this person becomes like other nations [who have not accepted the Noahide laws].<ref>Mishne Torah: Laws of Kings 8:10</ref><br />
<br />
A translation of Maimonides may be found [[Maimonides' Law of Noahides#Laws of Kings and their Wars' Chapter 8|here]]. (Please remember when reading other laws of Maimonides that he is only one authority, and other great Rabbis have given their opinions. Not all of Maimonides opinions have been accepted as ''halacha'').<br />
<br />
==Are You a Noahide Already?==<br />
<br />
All of humanity are 'children of Noah' by definition, so the question is really "are you an observant Noahide?" (i.e. one who is promised a share in the world to come). <br />
<br />
One answer is that many religions and legal systems come very close to qualifying as living up to the Noahide standard, but fall short on a few areas. So by supplementing or reforming an existing faith, one may live up to the Noahide requirements. Some Rabbis are of the opinion that reforming and correcting existing national faiths is the highest form of Noahide.<ref>Rabbi Yosef Gikkitila, Rabbi Nathaniel ibn Fayumi, Rabbi Ovadiah Seforno, Rabbi Menachem Meiri, Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, Rabbi Yaakov Emden, Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes, Rabbi Israel Lipschutz, Rabbi Elijah Benamozegh, Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, Rabbi Jonathan Sacks, Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz</ref> For example Aime Palliere, a Noahide taught by Rabbi [[Elijah Benamozegh]] remained a Roman Catholic, continued going to church, and apparently continued to take the Eucharist (albeit with a modifed intepretation).<ref>"The Unknown Sanctuary" by Aime Palliere.</ref><br />
<br />
Alternatively, another approach is join with one of the many communities of Noahides worldwide. These communities are best for people who have fallen out with establish religion and wish to take on some of the Jewish customs. Some Rabbis are of the opinion existing religions are beyond repair, or that Noahides are forbidden from creating a religion. They feel that taking on a voluntary set of customs, untainted by idolatry, is the highest form of Noahide.<ref>Rabbi Shlomo ben Yitzhak (Rashi), Maimonides, Rabbi Yehudah ben Betzalel Loewe (Maharal), Rabbi Isaac Luria, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Chabad), Rabbi Zevi Yehudah Kook, Rabbi Yoel Schwartz</ref><br />
<br />
==How to become a Noahide==<br />
<br />
To become an observant Noahide is to be assured of a 'portion in the world to come' by entering into a covenant with G-d, of which the Jewish people are also a part. It is to enter into a recognized relationship with the Jewish people, rather being completely outside of any legal system recognized by Judaism. <br />
<br />
The requirements are generally considered:<br />
# To recognize the covenant that already has been made<br />
# To become part of one of 'seventy' legal systems<br />
# And to accept the Rabbinic interpretation of scripture<ref>Some rabbinic authorities disagree that this is a requirement</ref><br />
<br />
Once one makes this step, the 'size' of one's portion in the world to come is determined by prayer, repentance, good deeds and good character. This may sound very similar to the teaching of other religions, particularly within the Abrahamic tradition, and it should be so. Judaism teaches that the Noahide covenant is the foundation of any proper society and religion.<br />
<br />
According to Rabbinic tradition, the best way to mark the decision to become a part of the Noahide Covenant is to make a declaration.<ref>Maimonides holds that the declaration is only required for a Ger Toshav. He holds that Ger Toshav only applies to those who live in Israel under a sovereign Jewish (Torah) State, others disagree. According to many authorities, there is value to the declaration of a person before a rabbinical court even outside of Israel.</ref><br />
<br />
==The Noahide Declaration==<br />
<br />
A Noahide declaration should include these points.<br />
<br />
To be a ''Chasidei Umos HaOlam'', Righteous Gentile:<br />
# Accept the seven commandments<br />
# Be careful to perform them (that is in all their subdivisions and details, including ''dinim'' - the laws of the courts)<br />
# Because they were commanded by G-d<br />
# Revealed to us by the hand of Moshe Rabbenu (through Rabbinic tradition)<br />
# Were previously commanded in these things (reconnecting with the previous ancient law & covenant)<br />
<br />
To be a ''Ger Toshav'', Partial Convert<br />
# He must accept [these laws] on himself in front of three judges.<br />
# This is in "every place", which I believe means local judges anywhere in the world.<br />
<br />
One must remember that unlike 'conversion' to Christianity or Islam, the Noahide declaration is not a conversion process. It is not marked with some right of passage, nor with some interrogation of proper dogma or belief.<br />
<br />
Rather it is a declaration of intent to uphold the seven laws and their details, to become part of the jurisdiction of his/her nation's Noahide courts, and acceptance of the authority of Rabbinic tradition in these matters.<br />
<br />
==Becoming a Noahide or Converting to Judaism==<br />
<br />
As far as becoming an observant Noahide or converting to Judaism goes, these are two very different paths. Besides the obvious differences, there is the question of legal jurisdiction. A convert intends to be under the complete authority of the Jewish court of law as interpreted by the Jewish court system. A Noahide must place himself under the authority of his nations' Noahide courts, and be a good national. Just as a convert should seek the welfare of the Jewish nation (as Ruth said "your people will be my people..."), a Noahide should seek the welfare of his nation. In the Talmud (Bava Kama 38a), it is written that like the Jews, the Noahide nations have also been sent into exile because they didn't keep their part of the covenant. Some understand this to mean that they must find themselves and who they are. Like the Jews, they too have a mission and purpose in this world.<br />
<br />
==Which 'Nation' do you belong to?==<br />
<br />
There are those that claim that it is important that a Noahide declares the court system he/she is following, in addition to his pledge of upholding the seven laws. This is because it is impossible to uphold the [[Imperative of Legal System]] without belonging to a legal system.<br />
<br />
Rabbi [[Yaakov Anatoli]] (1194-1256) in ''HaMelamed'' put it this way:<br />
<br />
:When the Noahites were enjoined concerning Justice, they were put under obligation to create legal arrangements .... It is incumbent on the judges to draw up rules of equity that shall be appropriate for that particular country, as exemplified by the manner in which this matter is handled currently by the nations, severally. Likewise, it is incumbent upon merchants and upon the members of the trades to establish regulations for themselves... and whatever emerges as the law in this manner is law, as much as that which is written in the Bible. Furthermore, anyone violating this law violates Scripture, because Scripture commands the individual to accept the decisions of the contemporary jurists. The dictum, "The law of the land is the Law," relates to this concept.<ref>Quoted by Reuben Margolioth, Margolioth Hayarn. Jerusalem: Mosad Harav Kook, 1958, volume 11, page 20. (Sanhedrin 56b, section 9.)</ref><br />
<br />
==Finding a Rabbinical Court==<br />
<br />
Have you contacted Chabad in your area? They are usually open to Noahide issues.<br />
<br />
Is it possible for you to travel to Jerusalem to meet with the [[Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah]]?<br />
<br />
Is it possible to assemble a [[Rabbinical Court|Beis Din]] of observant Jews in your area to listen to your declaration?<br />
<br />
==Registering==<br />
<br />
There are some rabbinic opinions that one must observe the [[Seven Laws]] as a binding legal requirement. For Noahides in the United States, one way to do this is to register with the the [[United Noachide Council, Inc.|United Noachide Council]]. The UNC functions as a complementary court system to the United States court system, and is registered to handle certain legal cases. The intention is to allow a Noahide to fulfill the Noahide Covenant and ''in all your ways know G-d''(Proverbs 3:6). The idea being that even something as simple as stopping for a red traffic light, when done with the correct intention, can be a ''mitvah'' with spiritual reward.<br />
<br />
Please fill out the following information and send it to the UNC:<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
<br />
The UNC is working in other countries to set up complementary court systems, to make up for the lack where those countries legal systems have fallen short of the basic requirements for the proper functioning of society and religion.<br />
<br />
==References ==<br />
<references /></div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=How_to_become_a_Noahite&diff=3959How to become a Noahite2007-03-15T15:02:15Z<p>HaNoahide: /* Are You a Noahide Already? */</p>
<hr />
<div>The Talmud, and codified by Maimonides, it is written that it is not sufficient for a non-Jew to just keep the seven laws in order to "have a portion in the world to come".<br />
<br />
As Maimonides says:<br />
:Everyone who accepts the seven commandments and is careful to perform them – this person is of the ''Chasidei Umos HaOlam'', and he has a portion in the world to come. He accepts them and performs them because they were commanded by the ''Kodosh Baruch Hu'' revealed to us by the hand of ''Moshe Rabbenu'' that the ''Bnei Noah'' were previously commanded in these things.<ref>Mishne Torah: Laws of Kings 8:11</ref><br />
<br />
He also says:<br />
:One who accepts these [basic laws] is called: Ger Toshav in every place, and he must accept [these laws] on himself in front of three judges. And all who have taken upon themselves to circumcise, and twelve months have past without circumcision – this person becomes like other nations [who have not accepted the Noahide laws].<ref>Mishne Torah: Laws of Kings 8:10</ref><br />
<br />
A translation of Maimonides may be found [[Maimonides' Law of Noahides#Laws of Kings and their Wars' Chapter 8|here]]. (Please remember when reading other laws of Maimonides that he is only one authority, and other great Rabbis have given their opinions. Not all of Maimonides opinions have been accepted as ''halacha'').<br />
<br />
==Are You a Noahide Already?==<br />
<br />
All of humanity are 'children of Noah' by definition, so the question is really "are you an observant Noahide?" (i.e. one who is promised a share in the world to come). <br />
<br />
One answer is that many religions and legal systems come very close to qualifying as living up to the Noahide standard, but fall short on a few areas. So by supplementing or reforming an existing faith, one may live up to the Noahide requirements. Some Rabbis are of the opinion that reforming and correcting existing national faiths is the highest form of Noahide.<ref>Rabbi Yosef Gikkitila, Rabbi Nathaniel ibn Fayumi, Rabbi Ovadiah Seforno, Rabbi Menachem Meiri, Rabbi Yaakov Emden, Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes, Rabbi Israel Lipschutz, Rabbi Elijah Benamozegh and Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, Rabbi Jonathan Sacks, Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz</ref> For example Aime Palliere, a Noahide taught by Rabbi [[Elijah Benamozegh]] remained a Roman Catholic, continued going to church, and apparently continued to take the Eucharist (albeit with a modifed intepretation).<ref>"The Unknown Sanctuary" by Aime Palliere.</ref><br />
<br />
Alternatively, another approach is join with one of the many communities of Noahides worldwide. These communities are best for people who have fallen out with establish religion and wish to take on some of the Jewish customs. Some Rabbis are of the opinion existing religions are beyond repair, or that Noahides are forbidden from creating a religion. They feel that taking on a voluntary set of customs, untainted by idolatry, is the highest form of Noahide.<ref>Rabbi Shlomo ben Yitzhak (Rashi), Maimonides, Rabbi Yehudah ben Betzalel Loewe (Maharal), Rabbi Isaac Luria, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Chabad), Rabbi Zevi Yehudah Kook, Rabbi Yoel Schwartz</ref><br />
<br />
==How to become a Noahide==<br />
<br />
To become an observant Noahide is to be assured of a 'portion in the world to come' by entering into a covenant with G-d, of which the Jewish people are also a part. It is to enter into a recognized relationship with the Jewish people, rather being completely outside of any legal system recognized by Judaism. <br />
<br />
The requirements are generally considered:<br />
# To recognize the covenant that already has been made<br />
# To become part of one of 'seventy' legal systems<br />
# And to accept the Rabbinic interpretation of scripture<ref>Some rabbinic authorities disagree that this is a requirement</ref><br />
<br />
Once one makes this step, the 'size' of one's portion in the world to come is determined by prayer, repentance, good deeds and good character. This may sound very similar to the teaching of other religions, particularly within the Abrahamic tradition, and it should be so. Judaism teaches that the Noahide covenant is the foundation of any proper society and religion.<br />
<br />
According to Rabbinic tradition, the best way to mark the decision to become a part of the Noahide Covenant is to make a declaration.<ref>Maimonides holds that the declaration is only required for a Ger Toshav. He holds that Ger Toshav only applies to those who live in Israel under a sovereign Jewish (Torah) State, others disagree. According to many authorities, there is value to the declaration of a person before a rabbinical court even outside of Israel.</ref><br />
<br />
==The Noahide Declaration==<br />
<br />
A Noahide declaration should include these points.<br />
<br />
To be a ''Chasidei Umos HaOlam'', Righteous Gentile:<br />
# Accept the seven commandments<br />
# Be careful to perform them (that is in all their subdivisions and details, including ''dinim'' - the laws of the courts)<br />
# Because they were commanded by G-d<br />
# Revealed to us by the hand of Moshe Rabbenu (through Rabbinic tradition)<br />
# Were previously commanded in these things (reconnecting with the previous ancient law & covenant)<br />
<br />
To be a ''Ger Toshav'', Partial Convert<br />
# He must accept [these laws] on himself in front of three judges.<br />
# This is in "every place", which I believe means local judges anywhere in the world.<br />
<br />
One must remember that unlike 'conversion' to Christianity or Islam, the Noahide declaration is not a conversion process. It is not marked with some right of passage, nor with some interrogation of proper dogma or belief.<br />
<br />
Rather it is a declaration of intent to uphold the seven laws and their details, to become part of the jurisdiction of his/her nation's Noahide courts, and acceptance of the authority of Rabbinic tradition in these matters.<br />
<br />
==Becoming a Noahide or Converting to Judaism==<br />
<br />
As far as becoming an observant Noahide or converting to Judaism goes, these are two very different paths. Besides the obvious differences, there is the question of legal jurisdiction. A convert intends to be under the complete authority of the Jewish court of law as interpreted by the Jewish court system. A Noahide must place himself under the authority of his nations' Noahide courts, and be a good national. Just as a convert should seek the welfare of the Jewish nation (as Ruth said "your people will be my people..."), a Noahide should seek the welfare of his nation. In the Talmud (Bava Kama 38a), it is written that like the Jews, the Noahide nations have also been sent into exile because they didn't keep their part of the covenant. Some understand this to mean that they must find themselves and who they are. Like the Jews, they too have a mission and purpose in this world.<br />
<br />
==Which 'Nation' do you belong to?==<br />
<br />
There are those that claim that it is important that a Noahide declares the court system he/she is following, in addition to his pledge of upholding the seven laws. This is because it is impossible to uphold the [[Imperative of Legal System]] without belonging to a legal system.<br />
<br />
Rabbi [[Yaakov Anatoli]] (1194-1256) in ''HaMelamed'' put it this way:<br />
<br />
:When the Noahites were enjoined concerning Justice, they were put under obligation to create legal arrangements .... It is incumbent on the judges to draw up rules of equity that shall be appropriate for that particular country, as exemplified by the manner in which this matter is handled currently by the nations, severally. Likewise, it is incumbent upon merchants and upon the members of the trades to establish regulations for themselves... and whatever emerges as the law in this manner is law, as much as that which is written in the Bible. Furthermore, anyone violating this law violates Scripture, because Scripture commands the individual to accept the decisions of the contemporary jurists. The dictum, "The law of the land is the Law," relates to this concept.<ref>Quoted by Reuben Margolioth, Margolioth Hayarn. Jerusalem: Mosad Harav Kook, 1958, volume 11, page 20. (Sanhedrin 56b, section 9.)</ref><br />
<br />
==Finding a Rabbinical Court==<br />
<br />
Have you contacted Chabad in your area? They are usually open to Noahide issues.<br />
<br />
Is it possible for you to travel to Jerusalem to meet with the [[Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah]]?<br />
<br />
Is it possible to assemble a [[Rabbinical Court|Beis Din]] of observant Jews in your area to listen to your declaration?<br />
<br />
==Registering==<br />
<br />
There are some rabbinic opinions that one must observe the [[Seven Laws]] as a binding legal requirement. For Noahides in the United States, one way to do this is to register with the the [[United Noachide Council, Inc.|United Noachide Council]]. The UNC functions as a complementary court system to the United States court system, and is registered to handle certain legal cases. The intention is to allow a Noahide to fulfill the Noahide Covenant and ''in all your ways know G-d''(Proverbs 3:6). The idea being that even something as simple as stopping for a red traffic light, when done with the correct intention, can be a ''mitvah'' with spiritual reward.<br />
<br />
Please fill out the following information and send it to the UNC:<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
<br />
The UNC is working in other countries to set up complementary court systems, to make up for the lack where those countries legal systems have fallen short of the basic requirements for the proper functioning of society and religion.<br />
<br />
==References ==<br />
<references /></div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=How_to_become_a_Noahite&diff=3958How to become a Noahite2007-03-15T14:01:53Z<p>HaNoahide: /* Finding a Noahide Court */</p>
<hr />
<div>The Talmud, and codified by Maimonides, it is written that it is not sufficient for a non-Jew to just keep the seven laws in order to "have a portion in the world to come".<br />
<br />
As Maimonides says:<br />
:Everyone who accepts the seven commandments and is careful to perform them – this person is of the ''Chasidei Umos HaOlam'', and he has a portion in the world to come. He accepts them and performs them because they were commanded by the ''Kodosh Baruch Hu'' revealed to us by the hand of ''Moshe Rabbenu'' that the ''Bnei Noah'' were previously commanded in these things.<ref>Mishne Torah: Laws of Kings 8:11</ref><br />
<br />
He also says:<br />
:One who accepts these [basic laws] is called: Ger Toshav in every place, and he must accept [these laws] on himself in front of three judges. And all who have taken upon themselves to circumcise, and twelve months have past without circumcision – this person becomes like other nations [who have not accepted the Noahide laws].<ref>Mishne Torah: Laws of Kings 8:10</ref><br />
<br />
A translation of Maimonides may be found [[Maimonides' Law of Noahides#Laws of Kings and their Wars' Chapter 8|here]]. (Please remember when reading other laws of Maimonides that he is only one authority, and other great Rabbis have given their opinions. Not all of Maimonides opinions have been accepted as ''halacha'').<br />
<br />
==Are You a Noahide Already?==<br />
<br />
All of humanity are 'children of Noah' by definition, so the question is really "are you an observant Noahide?" (i.e. one who is promised a share in the world to come). <br />
<br />
One answer is that many religions and legal systems come very close to qualifying as living up to the Noahide standard, but fall short on a few areas. So by supplementing or reforming an existing faith, one may live up to the Noahide requirements. Some Rabbis are of the opinion that reforming and correcting existing national faiths is the highest form of Noahide.<ref>Rabbi Yosef Gikkitila, Rabbi Nathaniel ibn Fayumi, Rabbi Ovadiah Seforno, Rabbi Menachem Meiri, Rabbi Yaakov Emden, Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes, Rabbi Israel Lipschutz, Rabbi Elijah Benamozegh and Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, Rabbi Jonathan Sacks, Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz</ref> For example Aime Palliere, a Noahide taught by Rabbi [[Elijah Benamozegh]] remained a Roman Catholic, continued going to church, and apparently continued to take the Eucharist (albeit with a modifed intepretation).<ref>"The Unknown Sanctuary" by Aime Palliere.</ref><br />
<br />
Alternatively, another approach is join with one of the many communities of Noahides worldwide. These communities are best for people who have fallen out with establish religion and wish to take on some of the Jewish customs. Some Rabbis are of the opinion existing religions are beyond repair, or that Noahides are forbidden from creating a religion. They feel that taking on a voluntary set of customs, untainted by idolatry, is the highest form of Noahide.<ref>Rabbi Shlomo ben Yitzhak (Rashi), Maimonides, Rabbi Yehudah ben Betzalel Loewe (Maharal), Rabbi Zevi Yehudah Kook, Rabbi Isaac Luria, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Chabad), Rabbi Yoel Schwartz</ref><br />
<br />
==How to become a Noahide==<br />
<br />
To become an observant Noahide is to be assured of a 'portion in the world to come' by entering into a covenant with G-d, of which the Jewish people are also a part. It is to enter into a recognized relationship with the Jewish people, rather being completely outside of any legal system recognized by Judaism. <br />
<br />
The requirements are generally considered:<br />
# To recognize the covenant that already has been made<br />
# To become part of one of 'seventy' legal systems<br />
# And to accept the Rabbinic interpretation of scripture<ref>Some rabbinic authorities disagree that this is a requirement</ref><br />
<br />
Once one makes this step, the 'size' of one's portion in the world to come is determined by prayer, repentance, good deeds and good character. This may sound very similar to the teaching of other religions, particularly within the Abrahamic tradition, and it should be so. Judaism teaches that the Noahide covenant is the foundation of any proper society and religion.<br />
<br />
According to Rabbinic tradition, the best way to mark the decision to become a part of the Noahide Covenant is to make a declaration.<ref>Maimonides holds that the declaration is only required for a Ger Toshav. He holds that Ger Toshav only applies to those who live in Israel under a sovereign Jewish (Torah) State, others disagree. According to many authorities, there is value to the declaration of a person before a rabbinical court even outside of Israel.</ref><br />
<br />
==The Noahide Declaration==<br />
<br />
A Noahide declaration should include these points.<br />
<br />
To be a ''Chasidei Umos HaOlam'', Righteous Gentile:<br />
# Accept the seven commandments<br />
# Be careful to perform them (that is in all their subdivisions and details, including ''dinim'' - the laws of the courts)<br />
# Because they were commanded by G-d<br />
# Revealed to us by the hand of Moshe Rabbenu (through Rabbinic tradition)<br />
# Were previously commanded in these things (reconnecting with the previous ancient law & covenant)<br />
<br />
To be a ''Ger Toshav'', Partial Convert<br />
# He must accept [these laws] on himself in front of three judges.<br />
# This is in "every place", which I believe means local judges anywhere in the world.<br />
<br />
One must remember that unlike 'conversion' to Christianity or Islam, the Noahide declaration is not a conversion process. It is not marked with some right of passage, nor with some interrogation of proper dogma or belief.<br />
<br />
Rather it is a declaration of intent to uphold the seven laws and their details, to become part of the jurisdiction of his/her nation's Noahide courts, and acceptance of the authority of Rabbinic tradition in these matters.<br />
<br />
==Becoming a Noahide or Converting to Judaism==<br />
<br />
As far as becoming an observant Noahide or converting to Judaism goes, these are two very different paths. Besides the obvious differences, there is the question of legal jurisdiction. A convert intends to be under the complete authority of the Jewish court of law as interpreted by the Jewish court system. A Noahide must place himself under the authority of his nations' Noahide courts, and be a good national. Just as a convert should seek the welfare of the Jewish nation (as Ruth said "your people will be my people..."), a Noahide should seek the welfare of his nation. In the Talmud (Bava Kama 38a), it is written that like the Jews, the Noahide nations have also been sent into exile because they didn't keep their part of the covenant. Some understand this to mean that they must find themselves and who they are. Like the Jews, they too have a mission and purpose in this world.<br />
<br />
==Which 'Nation' do you belong to?==<br />
<br />
There are those that claim that it is important that a Noahide declares the court system he/she is following, in addition to his pledge of upholding the seven laws. This is because it is impossible to uphold the [[Imperative of Legal System]] without belonging to a legal system.<br />
<br />
Rabbi [[Yaakov Anatoli]] (1194-1256) in ''HaMelamed'' put it this way:<br />
<br />
:When the Noahites were enjoined concerning Justice, they were put under obligation to create legal arrangements .... It is incumbent on the judges to draw up rules of equity that shall be appropriate for that particular country, as exemplified by the manner in which this matter is handled currently by the nations, severally. Likewise, it is incumbent upon merchants and upon the members of the trades to establish regulations for themselves... and whatever emerges as the law in this manner is law, as much as that which is written in the Bible. Furthermore, anyone violating this law violates Scripture, because Scripture commands the individual to accept the decisions of the contemporary jurists. The dictum, "The law of the land is the Law," relates to this concept.<ref>Quoted by Reuben Margolioth, Margolioth Hayarn. Jerusalem: Mosad Harav Kook, 1958, volume 11, page 20. (Sanhedrin 56b, section 9.)</ref><br />
<br />
==Finding a Rabbinical Court==<br />
<br />
Have you contacted Chabad in your area? They are usually open to Noahide issues.<br />
<br />
Is it possible for you to travel to Jerusalem to meet with the [[Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah]]?<br />
<br />
Is it possible to assemble a [[Rabbinical Court|Beis Din]] of observant Jews in your area to listen to your declaration?<br />
<br />
==Registering==<br />
<br />
There are some rabbinic opinions that one must observe the [[Seven Laws]] as a binding legal requirement. For Noahides in the United States, one way to do this is to register with the the [[United Noachide Council, Inc.|United Noachide Council]]. The UNC functions as a complementary court system to the United States court system, and is registered to handle certain legal cases. The intention is to allow a Noahide to fulfill the Noahide Covenant and ''in all your ways know G-d''(Proverbs 3:6). The idea being that even something as simple as stopping for a red traffic light, when done with the correct intention, can be a ''mitvah'' with spiritual reward.<br />
<br />
Please fill out the following information and send it to the UNC:<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
<br />
The UNC is working in other countries to set up complementary court systems, to make up for the lack where those countries legal systems have fallen short of the basic requirements for the proper functioning of society and religion.<br />
<br />
==References ==<br />
<references /></div>HaNoahidehttp://www.wikinoah.org/en/index.php?title=How_to_become_a_Noahite&diff=3957How to become a Noahite2007-03-15T12:57:38Z<p>HaNoahide: /* The Noahide Declaration */</p>
<hr />
<div>The Talmud, and codified by Maimonides, it is written that it is not sufficient for a non-Jew to just keep the seven laws in order to "have a portion in the world to come".<br />
<br />
As Maimonides says:<br />
:Everyone who accepts the seven commandments and is careful to perform them – this person is of the ''Chasidei Umos HaOlam'', and he has a portion in the world to come. He accepts them and performs them because they were commanded by the ''Kodosh Baruch Hu'' revealed to us by the hand of ''Moshe Rabbenu'' that the ''Bnei Noah'' were previously commanded in these things.<ref>Mishne Torah: Laws of Kings 8:11</ref><br />
<br />
He also says:<br />
:One who accepts these [basic laws] is called: Ger Toshav in every place, and he must accept [these laws] on himself in front of three judges. And all who have taken upon themselves to circumcise, and twelve months have past without circumcision – this person becomes like other nations [who have not accepted the Noahide laws].<ref>Mishne Torah: Laws of Kings 8:10</ref><br />
<br />
A translation of Maimonides may be found [[Maimonides' Law of Noahides#Laws of Kings and their Wars' Chapter 8|here]]. (Please remember when reading other laws of Maimonides that he is only one authority, and other great Rabbis have given their opinions. Not all of Maimonides opinions have been accepted as ''halacha'').<br />
<br />
==Are You a Noahide Already?==<br />
<br />
All of humanity are 'children of Noah' by definition, so the question is really "are you an observant Noahide?" (i.e. one who is promised a share in the world to come). <br />
<br />
One answer is that many religions and legal systems come very close to qualifying as living up to the Noahide standard, but fall short on a few areas. So by supplementing or reforming an existing faith, one may live up to the Noahide requirements. Some Rabbis are of the opinion that reforming and correcting existing national faiths is the highest form of Noahide.<ref>Rabbi Yosef Gikkitila, Rabbi Nathaniel ibn Fayumi, Rabbi Ovadiah Seforno, Rabbi Menachem Meiri, Rabbi Yaakov Emden, Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes, Rabbi Israel Lipschutz, Rabbi Elijah Benamozegh and Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, Rabbi Jonathan Sacks, Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz</ref> For example Aime Palliere, a Noahide taught by Rabbi [[Elijah Benamozegh]] remained a Roman Catholic, continued going to church, and apparently continued to take the Eucharist (albeit with a modifed intepretation).<ref>"The Unknown Sanctuary" by Aime Palliere.</ref><br />
<br />
Alternatively, another approach is join with one of the many communities of Noahides worldwide. These communities are best for people who have fallen out with establish religion and wish to take on some of the Jewish customs. Some Rabbis are of the opinion existing religions are beyond repair, or that Noahides are forbidden from creating a religion. They feel that taking on a voluntary set of customs, untainted by idolatry, is the highest form of Noahide.<ref>Rabbi Shlomo ben Yitzhak (Rashi), Maimonides, Rabbi Yehudah ben Betzalel Loewe (Maharal), Rabbi Zevi Yehudah Kook, Rabbi Isaac Luria, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (Chabad), Rabbi Yoel Schwartz</ref><br />
<br />
==How to become a Noahide==<br />
<br />
To become an observant Noahide is to be assured of a 'portion in the world to come' by entering into a covenant with G-d, of which the Jewish people are also a part. It is to enter into a recognized relationship with the Jewish people, rather being completely outside of any legal system recognized by Judaism. <br />
<br />
The requirements are generally considered:<br />
# To recognize the covenant that already has been made<br />
# To become part of one of 'seventy' legal systems<br />
# And to accept the Rabbinic interpretation of scripture<ref>Some rabbinic authorities disagree that this is a requirement</ref><br />
<br />
Once one makes this step, the 'size' of one's portion in the world to come is determined by prayer, repentance, good deeds and good character. This may sound very similar to the teaching of other religions, particularly within the Abrahamic tradition, and it should be so. Judaism teaches that the Noahide covenant is the foundation of any proper society and religion.<br />
<br />
According to Rabbinic tradition, the best way to mark the decision to become a part of the Noahide Covenant is to make a declaration.<ref>Maimonides holds that the declaration is only required for a Ger Toshav. He holds that Ger Toshav only applies to those who live in Israel under a sovereign Jewish (Torah) State, others disagree. According to many authorities, there is value to the declaration of a person before a rabbinical court even outside of Israel.</ref><br />
<br />
==The Noahide Declaration==<br />
<br />
A Noahide declaration should include these points.<br />
<br />
To be a ''Chasidei Umos HaOlam'', Righteous Gentile:<br />
# Accept the seven commandments<br />
# Be careful to perform them (that is in all their subdivisions and details, including ''dinim'' - the laws of the courts)<br />
# Because they were commanded by G-d<br />
# Revealed to us by the hand of Moshe Rabbenu (through Rabbinic tradition)<br />
# Were previously commanded in these things (reconnecting with the previous ancient law & covenant)<br />
<br />
To be a ''Ger Toshav'', Partial Convert<br />
# He must accept [these laws] on himself in front of three judges.<br />
# This is in "every place", which I believe means local judges anywhere in the world.<br />
<br />
One must remember that unlike 'conversion' to Christianity or Islam, the Noahide declaration is not a conversion process. It is not marked with some right of passage, nor with some interrogation of proper dogma or belief.<br />
<br />
Rather it is a declaration of intent to uphold the seven laws and their details, to become part of the jurisdiction of his/her nation's Noahide courts, and acceptance of the authority of Rabbinic tradition in these matters.<br />
<br />
==Becoming a Noahide or Converting to Judaism==<br />
<br />
As far as becoming an observant Noahide or converting to Judaism goes, these are two very different paths. Besides the obvious differences, there is the question of legal jurisdiction. A convert intends to be under the complete authority of the Jewish court of law as interpreted by the Jewish court system. A Noahide must place himself under the authority of his nations' Noahide courts, and be a good national. Just as a convert should seek the welfare of the Jewish nation (as Ruth said "your people will be my people..."), a Noahide should seek the welfare of his nation. In the Talmud (Bava Kama 38a), it is written that like the Jews, the Noahide nations have also been sent into exile because they didn't keep their part of the covenant. Some understand this to mean that they must find themselves and who they are. Like the Jews, they too have a mission and purpose in this world.<br />
<br />
==Which 'Nation' do you belong to?==<br />
<br />
There are those that claim that it is important that a Noahide declares the court system he/she is following, in addition to his pledge of upholding the seven laws. This is because it is impossible to uphold the [[Imperative of Legal System]] without belonging to a legal system.<br />
<br />
Rabbi [[Yaakov Anatoli]] (1194-1256) in ''HaMelamed'' put it this way:<br />
<br />
:When the Noahites were enjoined concerning Justice, they were put under obligation to create legal arrangements .... It is incumbent on the judges to draw up rules of equity that shall be appropriate for that particular country, as exemplified by the manner in which this matter is handled currently by the nations, severally. Likewise, it is incumbent upon merchants and upon the members of the trades to establish regulations for themselves... and whatever emerges as the law in this manner is law, as much as that which is written in the Bible. Furthermore, anyone violating this law violates Scripture, because Scripture commands the individual to accept the decisions of the contemporary jurists. The dictum, "The law of the land is the Law," relates to this concept.<ref>Quoted by Reuben Margolioth, Margolioth Hayarn. Jerusalem: Mosad Harav Kook, 1958, volume 11, page 20. (Sanhedrin 56b, section 9.)</ref><br />
<br />
==Finding a Noahide Court==<br />
<br />
Have you contacted Chabad in your area? They are usually open to Noahide issues.<br />
<br />
Is it possible for you to travel to Jerusalem to meet with the [[Jerusalem Court for Bnei Noah]]?<br />
<br />
Is it possible to assemble a [[Rabbinical Court|Beis Din]] of observant Jews in your area to listen to your declaration?<br />
<br />
==Registering==<br />
<br />
There are some rabbinic opinions that one must observe the [[Seven Laws]] as a binding legal requirement. For Noahides in the United States, one way to do this is to register with the the [[United Noachide Council, Inc.|United Noachide Council]]. The UNC functions as a complementary court system to the United States court system, and is registered to handle certain legal cases. The intention is to allow a Noahide to fulfill the Noahide Covenant and ''in all your ways know G-d''(Proverbs 3:6). The idea being that even something as simple as stopping for a red traffic light, when done with the correct intention, can be a ''mitvah'' with spiritual reward.<br />
<br />
Please fill out the following information and send it to the UNC:<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
# Something<br />
<br />
The UNC is working in other countries to set up complementary court systems, to make up for the lack where those countries legal systems have fallen short of the basic requirements for the proper functioning of society and religion.<br />
<br />
==References ==<br />
<references /></div>HaNoahide